
(lass. 



)()()K. 



PRESENTED BY 



THE 

INSTITUTES 

OF 

ENGLISH &EAIIAE, 

METHODICALLY ARRANGED; 

WITH 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING, QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION, FALSE 

SYNTAX FOR CORRECTION, EXERCISES FOR WRITING, 

OBSERVATIONS FOR THE ADVANCED STUDENT, 

AND 

A KEY TO THE ORAL EXERCISES: 

TO WHICH ARE ADDED 

FOUR APPENDIXES. 

DESIGNED FOE THE USE OF SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES, AND PRIVATE 
LEARNERS. 



BY GOOLD BROWN, 

PRINCIPAL OF AN ENGLISH AND CLASSICAL ACADEMY, NEW YORK. 

Ne quis igitur tanquam parva fastidiat Grammatices clementa.— Quintilian. 



STEREOTYPE EDITION, 

REVISED BY THE AUTHOR. 



NEW YORK. 

PUBLISHED BY SAMUEL S. & WILLIAM WOOD, 

No. 261 PEARL STREET. 

1848. 



Vtww 

mi 



SOUTHERN DISTRICT OF NEW YORK,**. 

BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the Thirtieth day of June, A. D. 1825, 
in the forty-ninth year of the Independence of the United States of America, 
Goold Brown, of the said District, hath deposited in this office, the title of a 
book, the right whereof he claims as author, in the words following, to wit : 

"THE INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, methodically ar- 
ranged; ivith examples for parsing, questions for examination, false syntax for 
correction, exercises for writing, observations for the advanced student, and a 
key to the oral exercises : to which are added four appendixes. Designed for 
the use of schools, academies, and private learners. By Goold Brown. Nequis 
igitur tanquam parva fastidiat Grammatices elementa. — Quintilian. Second 
Edition, revised and enlarged." 

In conformity to the Act of Congress of the United States, entitled, " An 
Act for the encouragement of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps, 
Charts, and Books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the 
time therein mentioned." And also to an Act, entitled, " An Act, supple- 
mentary to an Act, entitled ' An Act for the encouragement of Learning, by 
securing the Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the authors and proprietors 
of such copies, during the times therein mentioned,' and extending the bene- 
fits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical and 
other prints." 

JAMES DILL, 
Clerk of the Southern District of New-York* 

Gift 
Mrs. Hennen Jennings 
April 26, 1933 



STEREOTYPED BY THOMAS B. SMITH, 
816 WILLIAM STREET, NEW YORK. 



PREFACE 



l 'Neque enim aut alie7ia vituperare, aut nostra jactantius pradicare, animus est." 



1. Language is the principal vehicle of thought ; and so numerous and important 
are the ends to which it is subservient, that it is difficult to conceive in what manner 
the affairs of human society could be conducted without it. Its utility, therefore, will 
ever entitle it to a considerable share of attention in civilized communities, and to au 
important place in all systems of education. For, whatever we may think in relation 
to its origin— whether we consider it a special gift from Heaven, or an acquisition of 
industry— a natural endowment, or an artificial invention,— certain it is, that, in the 
present state of things, our knowledge of it depends, in a great measure, if not entire- 
ly, on the voluntary exercise of our faculties, and on the helps and opportunities afford- 
ed us. One may indeed acquire, by mere imitation, such a knowledge of words, as to 
enjoy the ordinary advantages of speech ; and he who is satisfied with the dialect he 
has so obtained, will find no occasion for treatises on grammar ; but he who is desirous 
either of relishing the beauties of literary composition, or of expressing his sentiments 
with propriety and ease, must make the principles of language his study. 

2. It is not the business of the grammarian to give law to language, but to teach it 
agreeably to the best usage. The ultimate principle by which he must be governed, 
and with which his instructions must always accord, is that species of custom which 
critics denominate good use ; that is, present, reputable, general use. This principle, 
which is equally opposed to fantastic innovation, and to a pertinacious adherence to 
the quaint peculiarities of ancient usage, is the only proper standard of grammatical 
purity. Those rules and modes of speech, which are established by this authority 
may be called the Institutes of Grammar. 

3. To embody, in a convenient form, the true principles of the English Language ; 
to express them in a simple and perspicuous style, adapted to the capacity of youth ; to 
illustrate them by appropriate examples and exercises ; and to give to the whole all 
possible advantage from method in the arrangement ; are the objects of the following 
work. The author has not deviated much from the principles adopted in the most ap- 
proved grammars already in use ; nor has he acted the part of a servile copyist. It 
was not his design to introduce novelties, but to form a practical digest of established 
rules. He has not laboured to subvert the general system of grammar, received from 
time immemorial ; but to improve upon it, in its present application to our tongue. 

4. That which is excellent, may not be perfect ; and amendment may be desirable, 
where subversion would be ruinous. Believing that no theory can better explain the 
principles of our language, and no contrivance afford greater facilities to the student, 
the writer has in general adopted those doctrines which are already best known ; and 
has contented himself with attempting little more than an improved method of incul- 
cating them. The scope of his labours has been, to define, dispose, and exemplify 
those doctrines anew ; and, with a scrupulous regard to the best usage, to offer, on 
that authority, some further contributions to the stock of grammatical knowledge. 
The errors of former grammarians he has been more studious to avoid than to expose ; 
and of their deficiencies the reader may judge, when he sees in what manner they are 
here supplied. 

5. This treatise being intended for general use, and adapted to all classes of learners, 
was designed to embrace in a small compass a complete course of English Grammar, 
disencumbered of every thing not calculated to convey direct information on the sub- 
ject. Little regard has therefore been paid to gainsayers. Grammarians have ever dis- 
co '.ed, and often with more acrimony than discretion. Those who have dealt most in 
penological controversy, have well illustrated the couplet of Denharn: 

"The tree of knowledge, blasted by disputes, 
Produces sapless leaves in stead of fruits." 



IV PREFACE. 

6. They who set aside the authority of custom, and judge every thing to be ungram- 
matical which appears to them to be unphilosophical, render the whole ground forever 
disputable, and weary themselves in beating the air. So various have been the no- 
tions of this sort of critics, that it would be difficult to mention an opinion not found 
in some of their books. Amidst this rage for speculation on a subject purely practical, 
various attempts have been made, to overthrow that system of instruction, which long 
use has rendered venerable, and long experience proved to be useful. But it is mani- 
festly much easier to raise even plausible objections against this system, than to in- 
vent an other less objectionable. Such attempts have generally met the reception they 
deserved. Their history will give no encouragement to future innovators. 

7. While some have thus wasted their energies in eccentric flights, vainly supposing 
that the learning of ages would give place to their whimsical theories ; others, with 
more success, not better deserved, have multiplied grammars almost innumerably, by 
abridging or modifying the books they had used in childhood. So that they who are 
at all acquainted With the origin and character of the various compends thus introdu- 
ced into our schools, cannot but desire a work which shall deserve a more extensive 
and more permanent patronage, based upon better claims. For, as Lord Bacon ob- 
serves, the number of ill-written books is not to be diminished by ceasing to write, but 
by writing others which, like Aaron's serpent, shall swallow up the spurious. 

8. The nature of the subject almost entirely precludes invention. The author has, 
however, aimed at that kind and degree of originality, which are to be commended in 
works of this sort; and has borrowed no more from others than did the most learned 
and popular of his predecessors. And, though he has taken the liberty to think and 
write for himself, he trusts it will be evident that few have excelled him in diligence 
of research, or have followed more implicitly the dictates of that authority which 
gives law to language. 

9. All science is laid in the nature of things ; and he only who seeks it there, can 
rightly guide others in the paths of knowledge. He alone can know whether his pre- 
decessors went right or wrong, who is capable of a judgement independent of theirs. 
But with what shameful servility have many false or faulty definitions and rules been 
copied and copied from one grammar to another, as if authority had canonized their 
errors, or none had eyes to see them ! Whatsoever is dignified and fair, is also modest 
and reasonable ; but modesty does not consist in having no opinion of one's own, nor 
reason in following with blind partiality tbe footsteps of others. Grammar unsupport- 
ed by authority, is indeed mere fiction. But what apology is this, for that authorship 
which has produced so many grammars without originality 1 Shall he who cannot 
write for himself, improve upon him who can 1 It is not deference to merit, but im 
pudent pretence, practising on the credulity of ignorance ! Commonness alone exempts 
it from scrutiny, and the success it has, is but the wages of its own worthlessness ! To 
read and be informed, is to make a proper use of books for the advancement of learn- 
ing; but to assume to be an author by editing mere commonplaces and stolen criti- 
cisms, is equally beneath the ambition of a scholar and the honesty of a man. 

10. Grammar being a practical art, with the principles of which every intelligent 
person is more or less acquainted, it might be expected that a book written professed- 
ly on the subject, should exhibit some evidence of its author's skill. But it would 
seem that a multitude of bad or indifferent writers have judged themselves qualified 
to teach the art of speaking and writing well; so that correctness of language and 
neatness of style are as rarely to be found in grammars as in other books. There have 
been, however, several excellent scholars, who have thought it an object not unwor- 
thy of their talents, to prescribe and elucidate the principles of English Grammar. 
But these, for an obvious reason, have executed their designs with various degrees of 
success ; and even the most meritorious have left ample room for improvement, 
though some have evinced an ability which does honour to themselves, while it gives 
cause to regret their lack of an inducement to further labour. The mere grammarian 
can neither aspire to praise, nor stipulate for a reward ; and to those who were best 
qualified to write, the subject could offer no adequate motive for diligence. 

11. Having devoted many years to studies of this nature, and being conversant with 
most of the grammatical treatises already published, the author conceived that the ob- 
jects above enumerated, might, perhaps, be better effected than they had been in any 
work within his knowledge. And he persuades himself that the improvements here 
offered, are neither few nor inconsiderable. He does not mean, however, to depreciate 
the labours, or to detract from the merits of those who have gone before him and 
taught with acknowledged skill. He has studiously endeavoured to avail himself of 
all the light they have thrown upon the subject. For his own information, he has 
carefully perused more than fifty English grammars, and has glanced over many others 
that were not worth reading. With this publication in view, he has also resorted to 
the original sources of grammatical knowledge, and bas not only critically considered 
what he has seen and heard of our vernacular tongue, but has sought with some dili- 
gence the analogies of speech in the structure of several other languages. 

12. His progress in compiling this work has been slow, and not unattended with la- 
bour and difhcultv. Amidst the contrarieties of opinion, that appear in the various 
treatises already before the public, and the perplexities inseparable from so complica- 
ted a subject, he has after deliberate consideration, adopted those views and explana- 



PREFACE. V 

tions which appeared to him the least liable to objection, and the most compatible 
with his ultimate object— the production of a practical school grammar. 

13. Ambitious of making not a large but an acceptable book, he has compressed into 
this volume the most essential parts of a mass of materials from which he could as 
easiiy have formed a folio. Whether the toil be compensated or not, is a matter of 
little consequence ; he has neither written for bread, nor built castles in the air. He 
is too well versed in the history of his theme, too well aware of the precarious fortune 
of authors, to indulge any confident anticipations of success ; yet he will not deny 
that his hopes are large, being conscious of having cherished them with a liberality of 
feeling which cannot fear disappointment. In this temper he would invite the reader 
to a thorough perusal of the following pages. A grammar should speak for itself. In 
a work of this nature, every word or tittle which does not recommend the performance 
to the understanding and taste of the skilful, is, so far as it goes, a certificate against it 
Yet if some small errors have escaped detection, let it be recollected that it is almost 
impossible to print with perfect accuracy a work of this size, in which so many little 
things should be observed, remembered, and made exactly to correspond. There is 
no human vigilance which multiplicity may not sometimes baffle, and minutenesa 
sometimes elude. To most persons grammar seems a dry and difficult subject ; but 
there is a disposition of mind, to which what is arduous, is for that very reason allu- 
ring. The difficulties encountered in boyhood from the use of a miserable epitome, and 
the deep impression of a few mortifying blunders made in public, first gave the author 
a fondness for grammar ; circumstances having since favoured this turn of his genius, 
he has voluntarily pursued the study, with an assiduity which no man will ever imi- 
tate for the sake of pecuniary recompense. 

14. This work contains a full series of exercises adapted to its several parts, with 
notices of the manner in which they are to be used, according to the place assigned 
them. The examples of false syntax placed under the rules, are to be corrected oral- 
ly ; the four chapters of exercises adapted to the four parts of the subject, are to be 
written out by the learner. In selecting examples for these exercises, the author has 
been studious to economize the learner's and the teacher's time, by admitting those 
only which were very short. He has, in general, reduced each example to a single 
line. And, in this manner, he has been able to present, in this small volume, a series 
of exercises, more various than are given in any other grammar, and nearly equal in 
number to all that are contained in Murray's two octavoes. It is believed that a gram- 
matical treatise at once so comprehensive and concise, has not before been offered to 
the public. 

15. The only successful method of teaching grammar, is, to cause the principal defi- 
nitions and rules to be committed thoroughly to memory, that they may ever after- 
wards be readily applied. Oral instruction may smoothe the way, and facilitate the 
labour of the learner; but the notion of communicating a competent knowledge of 
grammar without imposing this task, is disproved by universal experience. Nor will 
it avail any thing for the student to rehearse definitions and rules of which he makes 
no practical application. In etymology and syntax, he should be alternately exercised 
in learning small portions of his book, and then applying them in parsing, till the 
whole is rendered familiar. To a good reader, the achievement will be neither great 
nor difficult ; and the exercise is well calculated to improve the memory, and strength- 
en all the faculties of the mind. 

16. The mode of instruction here recommended is the result of long and successful 
experience. There is nothing in it, which any person of common abilities will find it 
difficult to understand or adopt. It is the plain didactic method of definition and ex- 
ample, rule and praxis ; which no man who means to teach grammar well, will ever 
desert, with the hope of finding an other more rational or more easy. The book itself 
will make any one a grammarian, who will take the trouble to observe and practise 
what it teaches ; and even if some instructors should not adopt the readiest and most 
efficient method of making their pupils familiar with its contents, they will not fail to 
instruct by it as effectually as they can by any other. Whoever is acquainted with 
the grammar of our language, so as to have some tolerable skill in teaching it, will hero 
find almost every thing that is true in his own instructions, clearly embraced under its 
proper head, so as to be easy of reference. And perhaps there are few, however learn 
ed, who, on a perusal of the volume, would not be furnished with some important 
rules and facts which had not before occurred to their own observation. 

17. The greatest peculiarity of the method is, that it requires the pupil to speak or 
write a great deal, and the teacher very little. But both should constantly remember 
that grammar is the art of speaking and writing well ; an art which can no more be 
acquired without practise than that of dancing or swimming. And each should be 
careful to perform his part handsomely— without drawling, omitting, stopping, hesita- 
ting, faltering, miscalling, reiterating, stuttering, hurrying, slurring, mouthing, misquo- 
ting, mispronouncing, or any of the thousand faults which render utterance disagree- 
able and inelegant. It is the learner's diction that is to be improved ; and the system 
will be found well calculated to effect that object ; because it demands of him, not 
only to answer questions on grammar, but also to make a prompt and practical appli- 
cation of what he has just learned. If the class be tolerable readers, it will not be 
necessary for the teacher to say much ; and, in general, he ought not to take up the 
time by so doing. He should, however, carefully superintend their rehearsals ; give 

1* 



1 



VI PREFACE. 

the word to the next, when any one errs ; and order the exercise in such a manner 
that either his own voice, or the example of his best scholars, may gradually correct 
the ill habits of the awkward, till all learn to recite with clearness, understanding 
well what they say, and making it intelligible to others. 

18. The exercise of parsing commences immediately after the first lesson of etymol- 
ogy, and is carried on progressively till it embraces all the doctrines that are applica- 
ble to it. If it be performed according to the order prescribed, it will soon make the 
student perfectly familiar with all the primary definitions and rules of grammar. It 
requires just enough of thought to keep the mind attentive to what the lips are utter- 
ing ; while it advances by such easy gradations and constant repetitions as leave the 
pupil utterly without excuse, if he does not know what to say. Being neither wholly 
extemporaneous nor wholly rehearsed by rote, it has more dignity than a schoolboy's 
conversation, and more ease than a formal recitation ; and is therefore an exercise 
well calculated to induce a habit of uniting correctness with fluency in ordinary 
speech — a species of elocution as valuable as any other. 

19. The best instruction is that which ultimately gives the greatest facility and skill 
in practice ; and grammar is best taught by that process which brings its doctrines 
most directly home to the habits as well as to the thoughts of the pupil — which the 
most effectually conquers inattention, and leaves the deepest impress of shame upon 
blundering ignorance. In the whole range of school exercises, there is none of greater 
importance than that of parsing ; and yet perhaps there is none which is, in general, 
more defectively conducted. Scarcely less useful, as a means of instruction, is the 
practice of correcting false syntax orally, by regular and logical forms of argument ; 
nor does this appear to have been more ably directed towards the purposes of disci- 
pline. There is so much to be done, in order to effect whaft is desirable in the man- 
agement of these things; and so little prospect that education will ever be generally 
raised to a just appreciation of that study which, more than all others, forms the mind 
to habits of correct thinking; that, in reflecting upon the state of the science at the 
present time, and upon the means of its improvement, the author cannot but sympa- 
thize, in some degree, with the sadness of the learned Sanctius ; who tells us, that he 
had " always lamented, and often with tears, that while other branches of learning 
were excellently taught, grammar, which is the foundation of all others, lay so much 
neglected, and that for this neglect there seemed to be no adequate remedy." — Pref. 
to Minerva. The grammatical use of language is in sweet alliance with the moral ; 
and a similar regret seems to have prompted the following exclamation of the Chris 
tian poet : 

*' Sacred Interpreter of human thought, 
How few respect or use thee as they ought!" — Cowper. 

20. No directions, either oral or written, can ever enable the heedless and the un- 
thinking to speak or write well. That must indeed be an admirable book, which can 
attract levity to sober" reflection, teach thoughtlessness the true meaning of words, 
raise vulgarity from its fondness for low examples, awaken the spirit which attains to 
excellency of speech, and cause grammatical exercises to be skilfully managed, where 
teachers themselves are so often lamentably deficient in them. Yet something may 
be effected by means of a better book, if a better can be introduced. And what with- 
stands 1 — Whatever there is of ignorance or error in relation to the premises. And is 
it arrogant to say there is much ? Alas ! in regard to this, as well as to many a 
weightier matter, one may too truly affirm, Multa non sunt sicut mnltis videntur — 
Many things are not as they seem to many. Common errors are apt to conceal them- 
selves from the common mind ; and the appeal to reason and just authority is often 
frustrated, because a wrong head defies both. But, apart from this, there are difficul- 
ties : multiplicity perplexes choice ; inconvenience attends change ; improvement re- 
quires effort; conflicting theories demand examination; the principles of the science 
are unprofitably disputed ; the end is often divorced from the means ; and much that 
belies the title, has been published under the name. 

21. It is certain, that the printed formularies most commonly furnished for the im 
portant exercises of parsing and correcting, are either so awkwardly written, or so 
negligently followed, as to make grammar, in the mouths of our juvenile orators, little 
else than a crude and faltering jargon. Murray evidently intended that his book of 
exercises should be constantly used' with his grammar ; but he made the examples in 
the former so dull and prolix, that few learners, if any, have ever gone through the 
series agreeably to his direction. The publishing of them in a separate volume, has 
probably given rise to the absurd practice of endeavouring to teach his grammar with- 
out them. The forms of parsing and correcting which this author furnishes, are also 
misplaced ; and when found by the learner, are of little use. They are so verbose, 
awkward, irregular, and deficient, that the pupil must be a dull boy, or utterly igno- 
rant of grammar, if he cannot express the facts extemporaneously in better English. 
When we consider how exceedingly important it is, that the business of a school 
should proceed without loss of time, and that, in the oral exercises here spoken of, 
each pupil should go through his part promptly, clearly, correctly, and fully, we can- 
not think it a light objection that these forms, so often to be repeated, are badly writ- 
ten Nor does the objection lie against this writer only : Ao uno disce omnes. But 
the reader may demand some illustrations. 



PREFACE. Vll 

22. First— from his etymological parsing : " O Virtue ! how amiable thou art !*' Here 
his form for the word Virtue is — " Virtue is a common substantive, of the neuter gen- 
der, of the third person, in. the singular number, and the nominative case." It should 
have been — " Virtue is a common noun, personified proper, of the second person, sin- 
gular number, feminine gender, and nominative case." And, then the definitions of 
all these things should have followed in regular numerical order. He gives the class 
of this noun wrong, for virtue addressed becomes an individual ; he gives the gender 
wrong, and in direct contradiction to what he says of the word, in his section on gender ; 
he gives the person wrong, as may be seen by the pronoun thou ; he repeats the definite 
article three limes unnecessarily, and inserts two needless prepositions, making them dif- 
ferent where the relation is precisely the same : and all this, in a sentence of two lines, 
to tell the properties of the noun Virtue! — But, in etymological parsing, the definitions 
explaining the properties of the parts of speech, ought to be regularly and rapidly re- 
hearsed by the pupil, till all of them are perfectly familiar, and till he can discern, 
with the quickness of thought, what is true or false in the description of any word in 
any intelligible sentence. All these the author omits ; and, on account of this omis- 
sion, his whole method of etymological parsing is miserably deficient. 

23. Secondly — from his syntactical parsing : " Vice degrades us." Here his form for 
the word Vice is — " Vice is a common substantive, of the third person, in the singular 
number, and the nominative case." Now, when the learner is told that this is the syn- 
tactical parsing of a noun, and the other the etymological, he will of course conclude, 
that to advance from the etymology to the syntax of this part of speech, i-s merely to 
omit the gender— this being the only difference between the two forms. But even this 
difference had no other oricin than the compiler's carelessness in preparing his octavo 
book of exercises — the gender being inserted in the duodecimo. And what then 1 Is 
the syntactical parsing of a noun to be precisely the same as the etymological 1 Never. 
But Murray, and all who admire, and follow his work, are content to parse many 
words by halves — making a distinction, and yet often omitting, in both parts of the ex- 
ercise, every thing which constitutes the difference. He should here have said — 
" Fice is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and 
nominative case : and is the subject of degrades ; according to the rule which says, 
' A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a verb, must be in the nominative case.' 
Because the meaning is — vice degrades." This is the whole description of the word, 
with its construction ; and to say less, is to leave the matter unfinished. 

24. Thirdly— from his "mode of verbally correcting erroneous sentences: 'The man 
is prudent which speaks little.' This sentence is incorrect; because which is a pro- 
noun of the neuter gender, and does not. agree in gender with its antecedent man, which 
is masculine. But a pronoun should agree with its antecedent in gender, &c. accord- 
ing to the fifth rule of syntax. Which should therefore be who, & relative pronoun, 
agreeing with its antecedent man ; and the sentence should stand thus : 'The man is 
prudent who speaks little.' " Again: " ' After I visited Europe, I returned to Ameri- 
ca.' This sentence is not correct ; because the verb visited is in the imperfect tense, 
and yet used here to express an action, not only past, but prior to the time referred to 
by the verb returned, to which it relates. By the thirteenth rule of syntax, when 
verbs are used that, in point of time, relate to each other, the order of time should be ■ 
observed. The imperfect tense visited should therefore have been had visited, in the 
pluperfect tense, representing the action of visiting, not only as past, but also as prior 
to the time of returning. The sentence corrected would stand thus : ' After I had visit- 
ed Europe, I returned to America.' " These are the first two examples of Murray's 
verbal corrections, and the only ones retained by Alger, in his improved, recopy-righted 
edition of Murray's Exercises. Yet, in each of them, is the argumentation palpably 
false ! In the former, truly, which should be who ; but not because which is of the 
neuter gender ; but because the application of that relative to persons, is now nearly 
obsolete. Can any grammarian forget that, in speaking of brute animals, male orfe 
male, we commonly use which, and never who ? But if which must needs be neuter, 
the world is wrong in this.— As for the latter example, it is right as it stands ; and the 
correction is, in some sort, tautological. The conjunctive adverb after makes one of 
the actions subsequent to the other, and gives to the visiting all the priority that is 
signified by the pluperfect tense. " After 1 visited Europe," is equivalent to " When I 
had visited Europe." The whole argument is therefore void. 

25. These few brief illustrations, out-of thousands that might be adduced in proof of 
the faultiness of the common manuals, the author has reluctantly introduced, to show 
that, even in the most popular books, the grammar of our language has not been treat- 
ed with that care and ability which its importance demands. It is hardly to be sup- 
posed that men unused to a teacher's duties, can be qualified to compose such Books 
as will most facilitate his labours. Practice is a better pilot than theory. And while, 
in respect to grammar, the evidences of failure are constantly inducing changes from 
one system to an other, and almost daily giving birth to new expedients as constantly 
to end in the same disappointment ; perhaps the practical instructions of an experien 
ced teacher, long and assiduously devoted to the study, may approve themselves to 
many, as seasonably supplying the aid and guidance which they require. 

26. From the doctrines of grammar, novelty is rigidly excluded. They consist of de- 
tails to which taste can lend no charm, and genius no embellishment. A writer may 
express them with neatness and perspicuity—their importance alone can commend 



Vlll PREFACE. 

them to notice. Yet, in drawing his illustrations from the stores of literature, the 
grammarian may select some gems of thought, which will fasten on the memory a 
worthy sentiment, or relieve the dullness of minute instruction. Such examples have 
been taken from various authors, and interspersed through the following pages. 

27. The moral effect of early lessons being o point of the utmost importance, it is es- 
pecially incumbent on all those who are endeavouring to confer the benefits of intel- 
lectual culture, to guard against the admission or the inculcation of any principle which 
may have an improper tendency, and be ultimately prejudicial to those whom they in- 
struct. In preparing this treatise for publication, the author has been solicitous to 
avoid every thing that could be offensive to the most delicate and scrupulous reader; 
and, of the several thousands of quotations given, he trusts that the greater part will 
be considered valuable on account of the sentiments they contain. 

28. He has not thought it needful, in a work of this kind, to encumber his pages 
with a useless parade of names and references, or to distinguish very minutely what is 
copied and what is original. All strict definitions of the same thing are necessarily 
similar. The doctrines of the work are, for the most part, expressed in his own Ian • 
guage, and illustrated by that of others. Where authority was requisite, names have 
been inserted ; and in general also where there was room. In the doctrinal parts of 
the volume, not only quotations from others, but most examples'made for the occasion, 
are marked with guillemots, to distinguish them from the main text ; while, to al- 
most every thing which is really taken from any other known writer, a name or refer- 
ence is added. In the exercises for correction, few references have been given ; be- 
cause it Is no credit to any author, to have written bad English. But the intelligent 
reader will recognize as quotations a large portion of the examples, and know from 
what works they are taken. To the schoolboy this knowledge is neither important 
nor interesting. 

29. Many of the definitions and rules of grammar have so long been public property, 
and have been printed under so many names, that it is ditficult, if not Impossible, to 
know to whom they originally belonged. Of these the author has freely availed him- 
self, though seldom without some amendment; while he has carefully abstained from 
every thing on which he supposed there could now be any individual claim. Pie has 
therefore fewer personal obligations to acknowledge, than most of those who are re • 
puted to have written with sufficient originality on the subject. 

30. In truth, not a line has here been copied with any view to save the labour of com- 
position ; for, not to compile an English grammar from others already extant, but to 
compose one more directly from the sources of the art, was the task which the writer 
proposed to himself. And though the theme is not one upon which a man may hope to 
write well with little reflection, it is true, that the parts of this treatise which have 
cost him the most labour, are those which " consist chiefly of materials selected from 
the writings of others." These, however, are not the didactical portions of the book, 
but the proofs and examples ; which, according to the custom of the ancient gramma 
rians, ought to be taken from other authors. But so much have the makers of our 
modern grammars been allowed to presume upon the respect and acquiescence of their 
readers, that the ancient exactness on this point would often appear pedantic. Many 
phrases and sentences either original or anonymous will therefore be found among the 
illustrations of the following work ; for it was not supposed that any reader would de- 
mand for every thing of this kind the authority of a great name. Anonymous exam- 
ples are sufficient to elucidate principles, if not to establish them ; and elucidation is 
often the sole purpose for which an example is needed. 

31. Trie author is well aware that no writer on grammar has any right to propose 
himself as authority for what he teaches ; for every language, being the common prop- 
erty of all who use it, ought to be carefully guarded against any caprice of individuals, 
and especially against that which might attempt to impose erroneous or arbitrary defi- 
nitions and rules. " Since the matter of which we are treating,'' says the philologist 
of Salamanca, " is to be verified, first by reason, and then by testimony and usage, none 
ought to wonder if we sometimes deviate from the track of great men ; for, with what- 
ever authority any grammarian may weigh with me, unless he shall have confirmed 
his assertions by reason and also by examples, he shall win no confidence in respect to 
grammar. For, as Seneca says, Epistle 95, ' Grammarians are the guardians, not the au- 
thors, of language.' " — Minerva, Lib. i. Cap. ii. Yet, as what is intuitively seen to be 
true or false, is already sufficiently proved or detected, many points in grammar need 
nothing more than to be clearly stated and illustrated ; nay, it would seem an inju- 
riou»reflection on the understanding of the reader, to accumulate proofs of what can- 
not but be evident to all who speak the language. 

32. Among men of the same profession, there is an unavoidable rivalry, so far as 
they become competitors for the same prize ; but .in competition there is nothing dis- 
honourable, while excellence alone obtains distinction, and no advantage is sought by 
unfair means. It is evident that we ought to account him the best grammarian, who 
has the most completely executed the worthiest design. But no worthy design can 
need a false apology ; and it is worse than idle to prevaricate. That is buv a spurious 
modesty, which prompts a man to disclaim in one way what he assumes in an other 
— or to underrate the duties of his office, that he may boast of having " done all that 
could reasonably be expected." Whoever professes to have improved the science of 
English grammar, must claim to know more of the matter than the generality of Eng- 



PREFACE. IX 

lish grammarians ; and he who begins with saying that "little can be expected" from 
the office he assumes, must be wrongfully contradicted when he is held to have done 
much. Neither the ordinary power of speech, nor even the ability to write respecta- 
bly on common topics, makes a man a critic among critics, or enables him to judge of 
literary merit. And if, by virtue of these qualifications alone, a man will become a 
grammarian or a connoisseur, he can hold the rank only by courtesy — a courtesy 
which is content to degrade the character, that his inferior pretensions may be accept- 
ed and honoured under the name. 

33. By the force of a late popular example, still too widely influential, grammatical 
authorship has been reduced in the view of many, to little or nothing more than a serv- 
ing-up of materials anonymously borrowed ; and, what is most remarkable, even for an 
indifferent performance of this "low office, not only unnamed reviewers, but several 
writers of note, have not scrupled to bestow the highest praise of grammatical excel- 
lence ! And thus the palm of superior skill in grammar, has been borne away by a 
professed compiler ; who had so mean an opinion of what his theme required, as to 
deny it even the common courtesies of compilation. What marvel is it, that, under the 
wing of such authority, many writers have sprung up to improve upon this mo>t happy 
design ; while all who were competent to the task, have been discouraged from attempt- 
ing any thing like a complete grammar of our language ? What motive shall excite a 
man to long-continued diligence, where such notions prevail as give mastership no 
hope of preference, and where the praise of his ingenuity and the reward of his labour 
must needs be inconsiderable, till some honoured compiler usurp them both, and bring 
his " most useful matter" before the world under better auspices? If the love of 
learning supply such a motive, who that has generously yielded to the impulse, will 
not now, like Johnson, feel himself reduced to an "humble drudge" — or, like Perizo- 
nius, apologize for the apparent folly of devoting his time to such a subject as grammar 1 

34. The first edition of this work was published in 1823 ; since which time, (within 
the space of nine years,) thirty or forty new compends, mostly professing to be ab- 
stracts of Murray with improvements, have been added to our list of English gram- 
mars. The author has examined twenty-seven of them, and seen advertisements of 
perhaps a dozen more. Being various in character, they will of course be variously 
estimated ; but, so far as he can judge, they are, without exception, works of little or 
no real merit, and not likely to be much patronized or long preserved from oblivion. 
For which reason he would have been inclined entirely to disregard the petty depre- 
dations which the writers of several of them have committed upon the following di- 
gest, were it not possible that by such a fritteriug-away of his work he himself might 
one day seem to some to have copied that from others which was first taken from him. 
Trusting to make it manifest to men of learning, that in the production of these Institutes 
far more has been done for the grammar of our language, than any single hand had 
before achieved within the limits of a school-book, and that with perfect fairness to- 
wards other writers ; he cannot but feel a wish that the integrity of his text should be 
preserved, whatever else may befall ; and that the multitude of scribblers who judge 
it so needful to remodel Murray's defective compilation, would forbear to publish un- 
der his name or their own what they find only in the following pages. 

35. The mere rivalry of their authorship is no subjeet of concern ; but it is enough 
for any ingenuous man to have toiled for years in solitude to complete a work of pub- 
lic utility, without entering a warfare for life to defend and preserve it. Accidental 
coincidences in books are unfrequent, and not often such as to excite the suspicion of 
the most sensitive. But, though the criteria of plagiarism are neither obscure nor dis- 
putable, it Is not easy, in this beaten track of literature, for persons of little reading to 
know what is, or is not, original. Dates must be accurately observed. Many things 
must be minutely compared. And who will undertake such a task, but he that is per- 
sonally interested T Of the thousands who are forced into the paths of learning, few 
ever care to know, by what pioneer, or with what labour, their way was cast up for 
them. And even of those who are honestly engaged in leaching, not many are ade- 
quate judges of the comparative merits of the great number of books on this subject. 
The common notions of mankind conform more easily to fashion than to truth ; and, 
even of some things within their reach, the majority seem content to take their opin- 
ions upon trust. Hence, it is vain to expect that that which is intrinsically best, will 
be every where preferred ; or that which is meritoriously elaborate, adequately appre- 
ciated. But common sense might dictate, that learning is not encouraged or respected 
by those who, for the making of books, prefer a pair of scissors to the pen. 

36. The real history of grammar is little known ; and many erroneous impressions 
are entertained concerning it : because the story of the systems most generally receiv- 
ed, has never been fully told ; and that of a multitude now gone to oblivion, was never 
worth telling. In the distribution of grammatical fame, which has chiefly been made 
by the hand of interest, we have had a strange illustration of the saying : " Unto every 
one that hath shall be given, and he shall have abundance ; but from him that hath 
not, shall be taken away even that which he hath." Some whom fortune has made 
popular, have been greatly overrated, if learning and talents are to be taken into the 
account; since it is manifest, that with no extraordinary claims to either, they have 
taken the very foremost rank among grammarians, and thrown the learning and talents 
cf ot*hers into the shade, or made them tributary to their own success and popularity. 

37. Few writers on grammar have been more noted than Lily and Murray. A law 



X PREFACE. 

was made in England by Kenry the Eighth, commanding Lily's grammar " only 
everywhere to be taught, for the use of learners and for the hurt in changing of schoole 
maisters." — Pref. to Lily, p. xiv. Being long kept in force by means of a special in 
quiry directed to be made by the bishops at their stated visitations, this law, for threa 
hundred years, imposed the book on all the established schools of the realm. Yet it is 
certain, that about one half of what has thus gone under the name of Lily, (" because," 
says one of the patentees, "he had so considerable a hand in the composition,") was 
written by Dr. Colet, by Erasmus, or by others who improved the work after Lily's 
death. (See Ward's Preface to the book, 1793.) And of the other half, history inci- 
dentally tells, that neither the scheme nor the text was original. The Printer's Gram- 
mar, London, 1787, speaking of the art of type-foundery, says : " The Italians in a 
short time brought it to that perfection, that in the beginning of the year 1474, they 
cast a letter not much inferior to the best types of the present age ; as may be seen in 
a Latin Grammar written by Omnibonus Leonicenus, and printed at Padua on the 14th 
of January, 1474 ; from whom our grammarian, Lily, has taken the entire scheme of his 
grammar, and transcribed the greatest part thereof, without paying any regard to the 
memory of this author.'''' See aiso the History of Printing, 8vo, London, 1770. This is 
the grammar which bears upon its titlepage : Quam solam Regia Majestas in omnibus 
scholis docendam prcecipit. 

38. Murray was an intelligent and very worthy man, to whose various labours in 
the compilation of books our schools are under many obligations. But in original 
thought and critical skill he fell far below most of " the authors to whom," he con- 
fesses, "the grammatical part of his compilation is principally indebted for its mate- 
rials ; namely, Harris, Johnson, Lowth, Priestley, Beattie, Sheridan, Walker, Coote, 
Blair, and Campbell." — Introd. to Gram. It is certain and evident that he entered upon 
his task with a very insufficient preparation. His biography informs us, that " Grammar 
did not particularly engage his attention, until a short time before the publication of 
his first work on that subject ;" that " His grammar, as it appeared in the first edition, 
was completed in rather less than a year — though he had an intervening illness, which 
for several weeks stopped the progress of the work ;" and that u the Exercise s„and 
Key were also composed in about a year." From the very first entrance of his book, 
it appears that he entertained but a low and most erroneous idea of the duties of that 
sort of character in which he was about to come before the public. He improperly 
imagined, as many others have done, that "little can be expected" from a modem 
grammarian, or (as he chose to express it) "from a new compilation, besides a careful 
selection of the most useful matter, and some degree of improvement in the mode of 
adapting it to the understanding, and the gradual progress of learners." — Introd. to 
Gram. As if, to be m?„ster of his own art — to think and write well himself, were no 
part of a grammarian's business ! And again, as if the jewels of scholarship, thus care- 
fully selected, could need a burnish or a foil from other hands than those which fash 
ioned them ! 

39. Murray's general idea of the doctrines of grammar was judicious. He attempt- 
ed no broad innovation on what had been previously taught ; for he had neither the 
vanity to suppose he could give currency to novelties, nor the folly to waste his time 
in labours utterly nugatory. By turning his own abilities to their best account, he 
seems to have done much to promote and facilitate the study of our language. But 
his notion of grammatical authorship, cuts off from it all pretence to literary merit, for 
the sake of doing good ; and, taken in any other sense than as a forced apology for his 
own assumptions, his language on this point is highly injurious towards the very au- 
thors whom he copied. To justify himself, he ungenerously places them, in common 
with others, under a degrading necessity which no able grammarian ever felt, and 
which every man of genius or learning must repudiate. If none of our older grammars 
disprove his assertion, it is time to have a new one that will ; for, to expect the perfec- 
tion of grammar from him who cannot treat the subject in a style at once original and 
pure, is absurd. He says, "The greater part of an English grammar must necessarily 
be a compilation ;" and adds, with reference to his own, " originality belongs to but a 
small portion of it. This I have acknowledged ; and I trust this acknowledgement will 
protect me from all attacks, grounded on any supposed unjust and irregular assump- 
tions." — Letter, 1811. The acknowledgement on which he thus relies does not appear 
to have been made, till his grammar had gone through several editions. It was then 
inserted as follows : " In a work which professes itself to be a compilation, and which, 
from the nature and design of it, must consist chiefly of materials selected from the 
writings of others, it is scarcely necessary to apologize for the use which the compiler 
has made of his predecessors' labours, or for omitting to insert their names." — Introd. 
to Gram. 

40. For the nature and design of a book, whatever they may be, the author alone is 
answerable ; but the nature and design of grammar, are no less repugnant to the 
strain of this apology, than to the vast number of errors and defects which were over- 
looked by Murray in his work of compilation. There is no part of the volume more 
accurate, than that which he literally copied from Lowth. To the Short Introduction 
alone he was indebted for more than a hundred and twenty paragraphs ; and even in 
these there are many things obviously erroneous. Many of the best practical notes 
were taken from Priestley; yet it was he, at whose doctrines were pointed most of 
thDse " positions and discussions," which alone the author claims as original. To 



- PREFACE. XI 

some, however, his own alterations may have given rise ; for, where he V persuades 
himself he is not destitute of originality," he is often arguing against the text of his 
own earlier editions. Webster's well-known complaints of Murray's unfairness, had 
a far better cause than requital ; for there was no generosity in ascribing them to 
peevishness, though the passages in question were not worth copying. On perspicu- 
ity and accuracy, about sixty pages were extracted from Blair ; and it requires no great 
critical acumen to discover, that they are miserably deficient in both. On the law of 
language, there are fifteen pages fro'm Campbell ; which, with a few exceptions, are 
well written. The rules for spelling are the same as Walker's: the third one, how- 
ever, is a gross blunder ; and the fourth, a needless repetition. W T ere this a place for 
minute criticism, blemishes almost innumerable might be pointed out. It might easily 
be shown that almost every rule laid down in the book for the observance of the 
learner, was repeatedly violated by the hand of the master. Nor is there among all 
those who have since abridged or modified the work, an abler grammarian than he who 
compiled it. Who will pretend that Fiint, Alden, Comly, Jaudon, Russell, Bacon, 
Lyon, Miller, Alger, Maltby, Ingersoll, Fisk, Greenleaf, Merchant, Kirkham, Cooper, 
Greene, Woodworth, Smith, or Frost, has exhibited greater skill? It is curious to ob- 
serve, how frequently a grammatical blunder committed by Murray, or some one of 
his predecessors, has escaped the notice of all these, as well as of many others who 
have found it easier to copy him than to write for themselves. 

41. But Murray's grammatical works, being at once extolled in the reviews, and 
made common stock in trade — being published, both in England and in America, by 
booksellers of the most extensive correspondence, and highly commended even by 
those who were most interested in the sale of them — have been eminently successful 
with the public ; and in the opinion of the world, success is the strongest proof of 
merit. Nor has the force of this argument been overlooked by those who have writ- 
ten in aid of his popularity. It is the strong point in most of the commendations which 
have been bestowed upon Murray as a grammarian. A recent eulogist computes, that 
"at least five millions of copies of his various school-books have been printed ;*' par- 
ticularly commends him for his " candour and liberality towards rival authors ;" avers 
that " he went on, examining and correcting his grammar, through all its forty editions, 
till he brought it to a degree~of perfection which will render it as permanent as the 
English language itself ;'' censures (and not without reason) the "presumption" of 
those " superficial critics" who have attempted to amend the work, and usurp his 
honours ; and, regarding the compiler's confession of his indebtedness to others, but 
as a mark of " his exemplary diffidence of his own merits," adds (in very bad English,) 
" Perhaps there never was an author whose success and fame were more unexpected by 
himself, than Lindley Murray" — The Friend, Vol. iii. p. 33. 

42. In a New- York edition of Murray's grammar, printed in 1812, there was inserted 
a " caution to the public," by Collins & Co., his American correspondents and publish- 
ers, in which are set forth the unparalleled success and merit of the work, " as it 
came in purity from the pen of the author ;" with an earnest remonstrance against the 
several revised editions which had appeared at Boston, Philadelphia, and other places, 
and against the unwarrantable liberties taken by American teachers, in altering the 
work, under pretence of improving it. In this article it is stated, " that the whole of 
these mutilated editions have been seen and examined by Lindley Murray himself, and 
that they have met with his decided disapprobation. Every rational mind," continue 
these gentlemen, "will agree with him, that, 'the rights of living authors, and the 
interests of science and literature, demand the abolition of this ungenerous practice.'' " 
Here, then, we have the opinion and feeling of Murray himself upon this tender point 
of right. Here we see the tables turned, and other men judging it " scarcely necessa- 
ry to apologize for the use which they have made of their predecessors' labours." 

43. It is not intended by the introduction of these notices, to impute to Murray any 
thing more or less than what his own words plainly imply ; except those inaccuracies 
and deficiencies which still disgrace his work as a literary performance, and which of 
course he did not discover. He himself knew that he had not brought the book to 
such perfection as has been ascribed to it ; for, by way of apology for his frequent al- 
terations, he says, "Works of this nature admit of repeated improvements ; and are, 
perhaps, never complete." But it is due to truth to correct erroneous impressions ; 
and, in order to obtain from some an impartial examination of the following pages, it 
seems necessary first to convince them that it is possible, to compose abetter grammar 
than Murray's, without being particularly indebted to him. If this treatise is not such, 
a great deal of time has been thrown away upon a useless project : and if it is, the 
achievement is no fit subject for either pride or envy. It differs from his, as a new 
map, drawn from actual and minute surveys, differs from an old one, compiled chiefly 
from others still older and confessedly still more imperfect. The region and the scope 
are essentially the same ; the tracing and the colouring are more original ; and (if the 
reader can pardon the suggestion) perhaps more accurate and vivid. 

44. He who makes a new grammar, does nothing for the advancement of learning, 
unless his performance excel all earlifr ones designed for the same purpose ; and no- 
thing for his own honour, unless such excellenceresult from the exercise of his own 
ingenuity and taste. A good style naturally commends itself to every reader— even to 
him who cannot tell why it is worthy of preference. Hence there is reason to believe, 
that the true principles of practical grammar, deduced from custom and sanctioned by 



Xll PREFACE. 

time, will never be generally superceded by any thing which individual caprice may 
substitute. In the republic of letters, there will always be some who can distinguish 
merit ; and it is impossible that these should ever he converted to any whimsical til©- 
ory of language, which goes to make void the learning of past ages. There will al- 
ways be some who can discern the difference between originality of style, and innova- 
tion in doctrine — between a due regard to the opinions of others, and an actual usurpa- 
tion of their text ; and it is incredible that these should ever be satisfied with any 
mere compilation of grammar, or with any such authorship as either confesses or be- 
trays the writer's own incompetence. For it is not true, that " an English grammar 
must necessarily be," in any considerable degree, if at all, *• a compilation ;" nay, on 
such a theme, and in " the grammatical part" of the work, all compilation, beyond a 
fair use of authorities regularly quoted, or of materials either voluntarily furnished or 
free to all, most unavoidably implies — not conscious " ability," generously doing hon- 
our to rival merit — nor " exemplary diffidence," modestly veiling its own — but inade- 
quate skill and inferior talents, bribing the public by the spoils of genius, and seeking 
precedence by such means as not even the purest desire of doing good can justify. 

45. All praise of excellence must needs be comparative, because the thing itself is 
so. To excel in grammar, is but to know better than others wherein grammatical ex- 
cellence consists. Hence there is no fixed point of perfection beyond which such 
learning may not be carried. The limit to improvement is not so much in the nature 
of the subject, as in the powers of the mind, and in the inducements to exert them 
upon a theme so humble and so uninviting. Dr. Johnson suggests in his masterly 
preface, " that a whole life cannot be spent upon syntax and etymology, and that even 
a whole life would not be sufficient." Who then will suppose, in the face of such 
facts and confessions as have been exhibited, that either in the faulty publications of 
Murray, or among the various modifications of them by other hands, we have any 
such work as deserves to be made a permanent standard of instruction in English 
grammar ? — The author of this treatise will not pretend that it is perfect ; though he 
has bestowed upon it no inconsiderable pains, that the narrow limits to which it must 
needs be confined, might be filled up to the utmost advantage of the learner, as well 
as to the best direction and greatest relief of the teacher. 

46. A Key to the Oral Exercises in False Syntax, is inserted in the Grammar, that 
the pupil may be enabled fully to prepare himself for that kind of class recitations. 
Being acquainted with the rule, and having seen the correction, he may be expected to 
state the error and the reason for the change, without embarrassment or delay. 

A separate Key to the Exercises for Writing, is published for the convenience of 
teachers and private learners. P'or an obvious reason this Key should not be put into 
the hands of the schoolboy. Being a distinct volume, it may be had, bound by itself 
or with the Grammar. 

47. From the first edition of the following treatise, there was made by the author 
for the use of young learners, a brief abstract, entitled, " The First Lines of English 
Grammar ;" in which are embraced all the leading doctrines of the original work, 
with a new series of examples for their application in parsing. Much that is important 
in the grammar of the language, was necessarily excluded from this epitome ; nor was 
it designed for those who can learn a larger book without wearing it out. But econo- 
my, as well as convenience, demands small and cheap treatises for children ; and 
those teachers who approve of this system of grammatical instruction, will find many 
reasons for preferring the First Lines to any other compend, as an introduction to the 
study of these Institutes. 

48. Having undertaken and prosecuted this work, with the hope of facilitating the 
study of the English Language, and thus promoting the improvement of the young, 
the author now presents his finished labours to the candour and discernment of those 
to whom is committed the important business of instruction. How far he has suc- 
ceeded in the execution of his design, is willingly left to the just decision of those 
who are qualified to judge. 

GOOLD BROWN. 
JVVio York, 1832. 



.CONTENTS, 



Page I 
Definition and Division of the Subject 15 | 

PART I.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 15 

Of Letters - - - - 15 

Rules for the use of Capitals - 16 

Of Syllables and Words - -17 

Of Spelling— Rules for Spelling - 19 

Questions on Orthography 20 

Exercises in Orthography - - 21 

PART II.— ETYMOLOGY. 27 

Of the Parts of Speech - - 27 

Examples for Parsing, Chapter I. - 28 

Of the Article - - - 30 

Of the Noun - - - 31 

Persons - - - 32 

Numbers - - - 33 

Genders - - 35 

Cases - - 36 

Examples for Parsing, Chapter II. - 38 

Of the Adjective - - - 40 

Examples for Parsing, Chapter III. - 43 

Of the Pronoun - - - 45 

Examples for Parsing, Chapter IV. - 50 

Of the Verb - - - 51 

Moods - 53 

Tenses - 54 

Persons and Numbers - - 55 

Conjugation of Verbs 59 

Passive Verbs - - 

Irregular Verbs - - 

Defective Verbs - - 

Of the Participle - - - 80 

Examples for Parsing, Chapter V. - 84 

Of the Adverb - 87 

Of the Conjunction - - - 89 

Of the Preposition - - - 90 

Of the Interjection - - - 91 

Examples for Parsing, Chapter VI. - 91 

Questions on Etymology - - 95 

Exercises in Etymology - - 100 

PART III.— SYNTAX. 104 

Introductory Definitions - - 104 

Rules of Syntax - - 105 

Examples for Parsing, Chapter VII. - 107 
Rules of Syntax, with Exam , Excep., 

Notes, Obs., and False Syntax - 121 
Rule I. Of Articles - - - 122 

Rule II. Of the Nominative to a Verb 12o 
Rule III. Of words in Apposition - 128 
Rule TV. Of Adjectives - - 130 

Rule V. Of the Pronoun and antece 

dent - - - - 136 

Rule VI. Of the Pronoun and collective 

noun - . - - 145 

Rule VII. Of the Pronoun and joint an- 
tecedents - .... i4g 
Rule VIII. Of the Pronoun and dis- 
junct antecedents - - 147 
Rule IX. Of the Verb and nominative 148 
Rule X. Of the Verb and collective 
k noun . - * 152 



Page 
Rule XI. Of the Verb and joint nomi- 
natives - - - 153 
Rule XII. Of the Verb and disjunct 

nominatives - - 157 

Rule XIII. Of Verbs connected - 159 

Rule XIV. Of Participles - - 161 

Rule XV. Of Adverbs - - 165 

Rule XVI. Of Conjunctions • - 169 

Rule XVII. Of Prepositions - - 172 

Rule XVIII. Of Interjections - 175 

Rule XIX. Of the Possessive Case - 176 
Rule XX. Of the Objective Case after a 

Verb or Participle - - - 180 

Rule XXI. Of the Same Case after a 

Verb as before it - - 182 

Rule XXII. Of the Objective Case after 

a Preposition - - - 184 

Rule XXiri. Of the Infinitive Mood 186 
Rule XXIV. Of the Infinitive after bid, 

dare, feel, &c. 188 

Rule XX V. Of the Nominative Case 

Absolute - - - - 188 

Rule XXVI. Of the Subjunctive Mood 19C 
Promiscuous Examples of False Syn- 
tax - - - - 192 
General Rule of Syntax - - 196 
Examples for Parsing, Chapter VIII. 199 
Questions on Syntax - - 203 
Exercises in Syntax - • 205 
PART IV.— PROSODY. 218 
Of PUNCTUATION - - 218 
Of the Comma - - - 218 
Of the Semicolon - - - 223 
Of the Colon - - - 223 
Of the Period, and the Dash - - 224 
Of the Note of Interrogation, and the 

Note of Exclamation - - 225 

Of the Parenthesis - - -226 

Of the Other Marks - - - 227 

Of UTTERANCE • - - 228 

Of Pronunciation • - - 228 

Of Elocution • - - 228 

Of FIGURES - - - 229 

Of Figures of Etymology - • 229 

Of Fiffures of Syntax - - 230 

Of Figures of Rhetoric - • 232 

Of VERSIFICATION - - 235 

Of Iambic Verse - - - 236 

Of Trochaic Verse - • - 237 

Of Anapresiic Verse - - - 238 

Of Dactylic Verse - - - 239 

Examples for Parsing, Chapter IX. • 239 
Questions on Prosody - - 246 

Exercises in Prosody - - - 248 

A KEY to the Oral Exercises in False 

Svntax - - - 262 

APPENDIX I. Of the Sounds of the 

Letters - - 285 

APPENDIX II. Of Derivation - 294 

APPENDIX IIT. Of Style - - 305 

APPENDIX IV Of Poetic Diction • 308 



THE 

INSTITUTE 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



' English Grammar is the art of speaking and writing 
the English language correctly. 

It is divided into four parts ; namely, Orthography, Ety- 
nrology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate words, 
and spelling. 

Etymology treats of the different parts of speech, and 
their classes and modifications. 

Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, 
and arrangement, of words in sentences. 

Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures, and 
versification. 



PART I. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate words, 
and spelling. 

OF LETTERS. 

A Letter is a character used in printing or writing, to 
represent i<r articulate sound. 

An articulate sound, is a sound of the human voice, used 
m speaking. 

The letters in the English alphabet, are twenty-six J 
A a, B b, C c, a<l,Ep } Ff, Gj?, H h, It, J J, Kk, 
L I, Mm, Npi,0 o, P p, Q q, R rj S s, T t % Uu, Yv, 
Ww, X x, ]Y y, Z z* 

' For the names and powers of the letters, see Appendix L 



15 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CLASSES OF LETTERS. 

The letters are divided into two general classes, vowels 
and consonants. 

A vowel is a letter which forms a perfect sound when 
uttered alone. 

A consonant is a letter which cannot be perfectly uttered 
till joined to a vowel. 

The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. 
All the other letters are consonants. 

W and y are consonants when they precede a vowel 
heard in the same syllable ; as in wine, twine, whine, ye, 
yet, youth : in all other cases, they are vowels ; as in newly, 
dewy, eyebrow. 

CLASSES OF CONSONANTS. 

The consonants are divided into mutes and semivowels. 

A mute is a consonant which cannot be sounded at all with- 
out a vowel. The mutes are b, d, k, p, q, t, and c and g hard. 

A semivowel is a consonant which can be imperfectly sound- 
ed without a vowel. The semivowels are/, h,j, I, m, n, r, s, v, 
x, z, and c and g soft. 

Four of the semivowels, I, m, n, and r, are termed liquids, on 
account of the fluency of their sounds. 

FORMS OF THE LETTERS. 

In the English language, the Roman characters are gen- 
erally employed ; sometimes, the Italic ; and occasionally, 
the ©lb (ffnglisl). 

The letters have severally two forms, by which they are 
distinguished as capitals and small letters. 

Small letters constitute the body of every work ; and 
capitals are used for the sake of eminence and distinction. 

RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS. 
RULE I. TITLES OF BOOKS. 

The titles of books, and the heads of their principal divisions, 
should be printed in capitals. When books are merely men- 
tioned, the chief words in their titles begin with capitals, and 
the other letters are small ; as, " Pope's Essay on Man." 

RULE II. FIRST WORDS. 

The first word of every distinct sentence, should begin with 
a capital. 

RULE III. NAMES OF DEITY. 

All names of the Deity should begin with capitals ; as, God, 
Jehovah^ the Mmighty, the Supreme Being, 



ORTHOGRAPHY. CAPITALS. 17 

RULE IV. PROPER NAMES. 

Titles of office or honour, and proper names of every de- 
scription, should begin with capitals ; as, Chief Justice Hale, 
William, London, the Park, the Albion, the Spectator, the Thames. 

RULE V. — OBJECTS PERSONIFIED. 

The name of an object personified, when it conveys an idea 
Strictly individual, should begin with a capital ; as, 

" Come, gentle Spring, ethereal mildness, come." 

RULE VI. WORDS DERfVED. 

Words derived from proper names of persons or places, 
should begin with capitals ; as, Newtonian, Grecian, Roman. 

RULE VII. 1 AND O. 

The words / and O, should always be capitals. 

RULE VIII. IN POETRY. 

Every line in poetry should begin with a capital. 

RULE IX. EXAMPLES. 

The first word of a full example, of a distinct speech, or of 
a direct quotation, should begin with a capital ; as, " Remem- 
ber this maxim : i Know thyself.' " — " Virgil says, ' Labour 
conquers all things. 5 " 

RULE X. CHIEF WORDS. 

Other words of particular importance, and such as denote the 
principal subjects of discourse, may be distinguished by capitals. 
Proper names frequently have capitals throughout 

OF SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 

A Syllable is one or more letters pronounced in one sound, 
and is either a word or a part of a word ; as, a, an, ant. 

A Word is one or more syllables spoken or written as 
the sign of some idea. 

In every word there are as many syllables as there are 
distinct sounds ; as, gram-ma-ri-an. 

A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; a w^ord 
of two syllables, a dissyllable ; a word of three syllables, a 
trissyllable ; and a word of four or more syllables, a poly- 
syllable. 

DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS. 

A diphthong is two vowels joined in one syllable ; as, 
ea in beat, ou in sound. 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A. proper diphthong, is a diphthong in which both the 
vowels are sounded ; as, oi in voice. 

An improper diphthong, is a diphthong in which only 
one of the vowels is sounded ; as, oa in loaf. 

A triphthong is three vowels joined in one syllable ; as> 
eau in beau, iew in view. 

A proper triphthong, is a triphthong in which all the 
vowels are sounded ; as, noy in buoy. 

An improper triphthong, is a triphthong in which only 
one or two of the vowels are sounded ; as, eau in beauty, 
iou in anxious. 

SPECIES AND FIGURE OP WORDS. 

Words are distinguished as primitive or derivative, and 
as simple or compound. The former division is* called 
their species ; the latter, their figure. 

A primitive word is one that is not formed from any sim- 
pler word in the language ; as, harm, great, connect. 

A derivative word is one that is formed from some sim- 
pler word in the language ; as, harmless, greatly, con- 
nected. 

A simple word is one that is not compounded ; as, watch, 
man. 

A compound word is one that is composed of two or 
more simple words ; as, watchman, ne%ertheless. 

Permanent compounds are consolidated ; as, bookseller,' 
schoolmaster : others are formed by the hyphen ; ^glass- 
house, negro-mercha?it. 

SYLLABICATION. 

In dividing words into syllables, we are chiefly to be directed by 
the ear ; it may however be proper to observe the following rules. 

I. The consonants should generally be joined to the vowels 
or diphthongs which they modify ; as, ap-os-tol-i-cal. 

II. Derivative and grammatical terminations should gener- 
ally be separated from the radical word ; as, harm-less, great-ly, 
connect-ed. 

III. Compounds should be divided into the simple words 
which compose them ; as, watch-man, never-the-less. 

IV. At the end of a line, a word may be divided, if necessa- 
ry ; but a syllable must never be broken. 

OF SPELLING. 

Spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper 
letters. JU- 



ORTHOGRAPHY.*— SPELLING. 19 

Obs. — This important art is to be acquired rather by means of the spell- 
ing-book or dictionary, and by observation in reading, than by the study of 
written rules. The orthography of our language is attended with much un- 
certainty and perplexity: many words are variously spelled by the best 
scholars, and many others are not usually written according to the analogy 
of similar words. But to be ignorant of the orthography of such words as 
are uniformly spelled and frequently used, is justly considered disgraceful, 
The following rules may prevent some embarrassment, and thus be of ser- 
vice to the learner. 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 

RULE I. — FINAL F, L, OR S. 

Monosyllables ending in f I, or 5, preceded by a single vowel, 
double the final consonant ; as, staff, mill, pass : except if, of 
as, gas, has, ivas, yes, is, his, this, us, thus. 

RULE II. — OTHER FINALS. 

Words ending in any other consonant than/, I, or s, do not 
double the final letter : except add, odd, ebb, egg, inn, err, burr 
purr, butt, buzz, fuzz, and some proper names. 

RULE III. DOUBLING. 

Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, when 
they end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, 
double their final consonant before an additional syllable that 
begins with a vowel : as, rob, robber ; permit, permitting. 

Exc. — X final, being equivalent to ks, is never doubled. 

RULE IV. NO DOUBLING. 

A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vow- 
el, or when the accent is not on the last syllable, should remain 
single before an additional syllable : as, toil, toiling ; visit, vis- 
ited ; general, generalize. 

Exc. — But I and s final are usually doubled, (though per- 
haps improperly,) when the last syllable is not accented : as, 
travel, traveller ; bias, biassed. 

RULE V. FINAL LL. 

Primitive words ending in II, generally reject one I, before 
ful, less, ly, and ness : as, skill, skilful, skilless ; full, fully, fulness. 

Obs.— Words ending in any other double letter preserve it double before 
these terminations ; as, blissful, oddly, stiffness, carelessness. 

RULE VI. FINAL E. 

The final e of a primitive word, is generally omitted before 
an additional termination beginning with a vowel : as, rate, 
ratable ; force, forcible ; rave, raving. 

Exc. — Words ending in ce or ge, retain the e before able or 
ous, to preserve the soft sound of c and g : as, peape, peaceable ; 
change, changeable ; outrage, outrageous. 






20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE VII. FINAL E. 

The final e of a primitive word, is generally retained before 
an additional termination beginning with a consonant : as, pale, 
paleness ; lodge, lodgement. 

Exc. — When the e is preceded by a vowel, it is sometimes 
omitted ; as, true, truly ; awe, awful : and sometimes retained ; 
as, rue, rueful ; shoe, shoeless. 

RULE VIII, FINAL Y. 

The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a conso- 
nant, is changed into i before an additional termination : as, 
merry, merrier, merriest, merrily, merriment ; pity, pitied, pities, 
pitiest, pitiless, pitiful, pitiable. 

Exc. — Before ing, y is retained to prevent the doubling of 
i ; as, pity, pitying. Words ending in ie, dropping the e by 
Rule 6th, change i into y, for the same reason ; as, die, dying. 

Obs. — When a vowel precedes, y should not be changed : as, day, days; 
Valley } valleys; money, moneys; monkey, monkeys. 

RULE IX. COMPOUNDS. 

Compounds generally retain the orthography of the simple 
words which compose them ; as, hereof, wherein, horseman, re- 
call, uphill, shellfish. 

Exc. — In permanent compounds, the words full and all drop 
one I ; as, handful, careful, always, withal : in others, they re- 
tain both ; as, full-eyed, all-wise, save-all. 

Obs. — Other words ending in //, sometimes improperly drop one I, when 
taken into composition ; as, miscal, downhil. This excision is reprehensi- 
ble, because it is contrary to general analogy, and because both letters are 
necessary to preserve the sound, and show the derivation of the compound. 
Where is the consistency of writing, recall, miscal — inthrall, bethral — wind- 
fall, downfal — laystall, thumbstal — waterfall, overfal — molehill, dunghil — 
windmill, twibil — clodpoll, enrol? [See Johnson's Dictionary, first Amer- 
ican ed. 4to.] 



QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 

LESSON I. — GENERAL DIVISION. 

What is English Grammar 1 
How is it divided 1 
Of what does Orthography treat 1 
Of what does Etymology treat'? 
Of what does Syntax treat % 
Of what does Prosody treat 1 

QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY. 

LESSON II. — LETTERS. 

Of what does Orthography treats 



ORTHOGRAPHY. QUESTIONS. 2\ 

What is a Letter? 

What is an articulate sound 1 

How many letters are there in English ! Repeat them. 

How are the letters divided ! 

What is a vowel ! 

What is a consonant ? 

What letters are vowels! and what, consonants'? 

When are ic and y consonants ! and when, vowels 1 

How are the consonants divided ! 

What is a mute? what consonants are mutes'? 

What is a semivowel '? what consonants are semivowels'? 

What letters are called liquids ! and why ] 

LESSON III. — CAPITALS. 

What characters are employed in English! 

What distinction of form do we make in each of the letters'? 

What is said o. small letters ! and why are capitals used! 

How many rules for capitals are there '? and what are their heads ! 

What says Rule 1st of titles of books?— Rule 2d of first icords?— Rule 3d of 
navies of Deity? — Rule 4th of -proper names? — Rule 5th of objects per son* 
ified?—Ru\e 6th of icords derived?— Rule 7th of I and O?— Rule 8th of 
poetry? — Rule 9th of examples? — Rule 10th of chief icords ? 

LESSON IV. — SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 

W T hat is a Syllable ? What is a Word ? 
Can the syllables of a word be perceived by the ear ! 
What is a word of one syllable called 1 
What is a word of two syllables called 1 
What is a word of three syllables called! 
What is a word of four or more syllables called ! 
• What is a diphthong? 

What is a proper diphthong! — an improper diphthong t 
What is a triphthong? 

What is a proper triphthong! — an improper triphthong! 
How are words distinguished in regard to species and figure? 
What is a primitive word ? 
What is a derivative word ! 
What is a simple word ! 
What is a compound word ! 

How do permanent compounds differ from others ! 
What guide have we for dividing words into syllables 1 
What are the special rules of syllabication ! 

LESSON V. — SPELLING. 

What is Spelling? 

How is this art to be acquired ! 

How many rules for spelling are there! and what are their heads! 

What *ays Rule 1st of final f I, or s?— Rule 2d of other finals?— -Rale 3d 
of the doubling of consonants ! — Rule 4th against the doubling of conso- 
nants !— Rule" 5th of final 11?— Rule 6th of final e?— Rule 7th of fina* 
e?— Rule 8th of final y?— Rule 9th of compounds? 



EXERCISES IN ORTHOGRAPHY. 

£r" [Spelling is to be taught by example, rather than by rule. For oral 
exercises in tins branch of learning, a speliing-book or vocabulary should 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

oe employed. The following examples of false orthography are inserted, 
that they may be corrected by the pupil in writing. They are selected with 
direct reference to the rules ; which are at first indicated by figures. For 
it is evident, that exercises of this kind, without express rules for their cor- 
rection, would rather perplex than instruct the learner ; and that his ability 
to correct them without reference to the rules, must presuppose such know- 
ledge as would render them useless.] 

EXERCISE L— CAPITALS. 

1. The pedant quoted Johnson's dictionary of the english 
language, Gregory's dictionary of arts and sciences, Crabb's 
english synonymes, Walker's key to the pronunciation of pro- 
per names, Sheridan's rhetorical grammar, and the diversions 
of purley. 

2. gratitude is a delightful emotion, the grateful heart at 
once performs its duty and endears itself to others. 

3. What madness and folly, to deny the great first cause ! 
Shall mortal man presume against his maker ? shall he not 
fear the omnipotent? shall he not reverence the everlasting 
one ? — ' The fear of the lord is the beginning of wisdom.' 

4. xerxes the great, emperor of persia, united the medes, 
persians, bactrians, lydians, assyrians, hyrcanians, and many 
other nations, in an expedition against greece. 

5. I observed that, when the votaries of religion were led 
aside, she commonly recalled them by her emissary conscience, 
before habit had time to enchain them. 

6. Hercules is said to have killed the nemean lion, the ery- 
manthian boar, the lernean serpent, and the stymphalian birds. 
The christian religion has brought all mythologic stories and 
milesian fables into disrepute. 

7. i live as i did, i think as i did, i love you as i did ; but all 
these are to no purpose ; the world will not live, think, or love 
as i do. — o wretched prince ! o cruel reverse of fortune ! o father 
Micipsa ! 

8. are these thy views ? proceed, illustrious youth, 
and virtue guard thee to the throne of truth ! 

9. Those who pretend to love peace, should remember this 
maxim : " it is the second blow that makes the battle." 

EXERCISE II.— CAPITALS. 

c time and i will challenge any other two,' said philip. — c thus, 
said diogenes, 4 do i trample on the pride of plato.' — ' true,' re- 
plied plato ; c but is it not with the greater pride of diogenes V 

the father in a transport of joy, burst into the following words: 
1 o excellent scipio ! heaven has given thee more than human 
virtue ! o glorious leader ! o wondrous youth !' 



0RTH0GRAPBY. EXERCISES. 23 

epammondas, the theban general, was remarkable for his love 
of truth, he never told a lie, even in jest. 

and pharaoh said to Joseph, " say to thy brethren, ' do this — 
lade your beasts, and go to the land of canaan.' " 

who is she that, with graceful steps and a lively air, trips 
over yonder plain ? her name is health : she is the daughter of 
exercise and temperance. 

to the penitent sinner, a mediator and intercessor with the 
sovereign of the universe, appear comfortable names. 

the murder of abel, the curse and rejection of cain, and the 
birth and adoption of seth, are almost the only events related of 
the immediate family of adam, after his fall. 

on what foundation stands the warrior's pride, 
how just his hopes, let sweedish charles decide. 

in every leaf that trembles to the breeze, 
i hear the voice of god among the trees. 

EXERCISE III— SPELLING. 

1. Few know the value of a friend, til they lose him. 
Good men pas by offences, and take no revenge. 
Hear patiently, iff thou wouldst speak wel. 

2. The business of warr is devastation and destruction. 
To er is human ; to forgive, divine. 

A bad speller should not pretend to scholarshipp. 

3. It often requires deep diging, to obtain pure water. 
Praise is most shuned by the praiseworthy. 

He that hoists too much sail, runs a risk of overseting. 

4. Quarrels are more easily begun than endded. 
Contempt leaves a deepper scar than anger. 

Of all tame animals the flatterrer is the most mischievous* 

5. Gluacks are generally more venturesome than skillful. 
He that willfully injures others, is a bad citizen. 

Odity may excite attention, but it cannot gain esteem. 

6. Good examples are very convinceing teachers. 
Doubts should not excite contention, but inquirey. 
Obligeing conduct procures deserved esteem. 

7. Wise men measure time by their improvment of it. 
Learn to estimate all things by their real usfulness. 
Encouragment increases with success. 

8. Nothing essential to happyness is unattainable. 
Vices, though near relations, are all at varyance. 
Before thou denyest a favour, consider the request. 

9. Good-wil is a more powerful motive than constraint, 
A wel-spent day prepares us for sweet repose. 

The path of fame is altogether an uphil road. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE IV.— SPELLING. 

1. He is tal enough who walks uprightly. 
Repetition makes smal transgressions great. 
Religion regulates the wil and affections. 

2. To carry a ful cupp even, requires a steady hand. 
Idleness is the nest in which mischief lays its egs. 
The whole journey of life is besett with foes. 

3. Peace of mind should be prefered to bodily safety. 
A bad begining is unfavourable to success. 

Very fruitful trees often need to be proped. 

4. None ever gained esteem by tattling and gossippmg. 
Religion purifies, fortifies, and tranquillizes the mind. 
They had all been closetted together a long time. 

5. Let every one be fullly persuaded in his own mind. 
Indolence and listlesness are foes to happiness. 
Carelesness has occasioned many a wearisome step. 

6. In all thy undertakeings, ponder the motive and the end. 
We cannot wrong others without injureing ourselves. 

A dureable good cannot spring from an external cause. 

7. Duely appreciate and improve your privileges. 
To borrow of future time, is thriftless managment. 

He who is truely a fireman is above mean compliances. 

8. Pitiing friends cannot save us in a diing hour. 
Wisdom rescues the decaies of age from aversion. 
Vallies are generally more fertile than hills. 

9. Cold numness had quite bereft her of sense. 

A cascade, or waterfal, is a charming object in scenery. 
Nettles grow in the vinyard of the slothfull. 
Tuition is lost on idlers and numbscuis. 

EXERCISE V.— SPELLING. 

1. He that scofe at the crooked, should beware of stooping. 
Pictures that resemble flowers, smel only of paint. 
Misdemeanours are the pioneers of gros vices. 

2. To remitt, a wrong, leaves the offender in debt. 
Superlative commendation is near akinn to detraction. 
Piety admitts not of excessive sorrow. 

3. You are safe in forgeting benefits you have confered. 
He has run well who has outstriped his own errors. 
See that you have ballast proportionate to your nging. 

4. The biasses of prejudice often preclude convincement. 
Rather follow the wise than lead the foollish. 

To reason with the angry, is like whisperring to the deaf. 
A bigotted judge needs no time for deliberation. 
The gods of this world have many worshippers. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. EXERCISES. 25 

5. Crosness has more subjects than admirers. 
Fearlesness conquers where Blamelesness is armour-bearer. 

6. Many things are chiefly valued for their rareity. 
Vicious old age is hopeless and deploreable. 
Irreconcileable animosity is always blameable. 

7. Treachery lurks beneath a guilful tongue. 
Disobedience and mischief deserve chastisment. 

By self-examination, we discover the lodgments of sin. 
The passions often mislead the judgment. 

8. To be happy without holyness is impossible. 
And, all within, were walks and allies wide. 
Call impertection what thou fancy'st such. 
Without fire chimnies are useless. 

9. The true philanthropist deserves a universal pasport, 
Ridicule is generally but the froth of il-nature. 

All mispent time will one day be regretted. 

EXERCISE VI— SPELLING. 

Fiction may soften, without improveing the heart. 
Affectation is a sprout that should be niped in the bud. 
A ccvettous person is always in want. 
Fashion is compareable to an ignis-fatuus. 
Fair appearances somtimes cover foul purposes. 
Garnish not your commendations with flatterry. 
Never utter a falshood even for truth's sake. 
Medicines should be administerred with caution. 
We have here no continueing city, no abideing rest. 
Many a trapp is laid to ensnare the feet of youth. 
We are caught as silyly as the bird in the net. 
By defering repentance, we accumulate sorrows. 
To preach to the droneish, is to waste your words. 
We are often benefitted by what we have dreaded. 
We may be succesful, and yet disappointed. 
In rebusses, pictures are used to represent words. 
He is in great danger who parlies with conscience. 
Your men of forhead are magnificent in promises. 
A true friend is a most valueable acquisition. 
It is not a bad memory that forgets injury es. 
Weigh your subject wel, before you speak positivly 
Difficulties are often increased by mismanagment. 
Diseases are more easyly prevented than cured. 
Contrivers of mischief often entrapp themselves. 
Corrupt speech indicates a distemperred mind. 
Asseveration does not allways remove doubt. 
Hypocrites are like wolves in sheeps' clotheing. 
Ostentatious liberallity is its own paymaster. 

3 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE VII— SPELLING. 

A downhil road may be travelled with ease. 
Distempered fancy can swel a molehil to a mountain. 
Let your own unbiassed judgment determine. 
A knave can often undersel. his honest neighbours. 
Xenophanes prefered reputation to wealth. 
True politeness is the ofspring of benevolence. 
Levellers are generally the dupes of designning men. 
Rewards are for those who have fullfiled their duty. 
Who trusts a hungry boy in a cubburd of dainties % 
Misery acquaints a man with strange bedfellers. 
The liberal man ties his purse with a beau-not. 
Double-deelers are seldom long in favour. 
The characters of the crosrow have wrought wonders. 
The plagiary is a jacdaw decked with stolen plumes. 
All virtues are in agrement ; all vices at varyance. 
Personnal liberty is every man's natural birthrite. 
There, wrapt in clouds, the blueish hills ascend. 
The birds frame to thy song, their ch earful] cherupping. 
There flggs, skydyed, a purple hue disclose. 
Lysander goes twice a day to the choccolat-house. 
Years following years, steal summing every day. 
The soul of the slothfull, does but drowse in his body. 
What think you of a clergiman in a soldier's dres ? 
Justice is here holding the stilliards for a balance. 
The huming-burd is somtimes no biger than a bumble-be. 
The muskittoes will make you as spoted as samon-trout. 
Cruelty to animals is a malicious and Jo-lived vice. 
Absolute Necessity must sign their deth-warrant. 
He who catches flies, emulates the nat-snaper. 
The froggs had long lived unmolested in a horspond. 
These are villanous creatures*' says a blokheded boy. 
The robbin-read-breast til pf late had rest ; 
And children sacred held a martin's nest. 



ETYMOLOGY.— PARTS OF SPEECH. 27 

PART II. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology treats of the different parts of speech, and 
their classes and modifications. 

THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

The Parts of Speech, or sorts of words, in English, are 
ten ; namely, the Article, the Noun, the Adjective, the Pro- 
noun, the Verb, the Participle, the Adverb, the Conjunction, 
the Preposition, and the Interjection. 

1. THE ARTICLE. 

An Article is a word placed before nouns, to limit their 
signification : the articles are the, and an or a. 

2. THE NOUN. 

A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that 
can be known or mentioned: as, George, York, man } 
apple, truth. 

3. THE ADJECTIVE. 

An Adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, 
and generally expresses quality : as, A wise man ; a new 
book. You two are diligent. 

4. THE PRONOUN. 

A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun : as, The 
boy loves his book ; he has long lessons, and he learns them 
well 

5. THE VERB. 

A Verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be 
acted upon : as, I am, I rule, I am ruled ; I love, thou 
lovest, he loves. 

6. THE PARTICIPLE. 

A Participle is a word derived from a verb, participating 
the properties of a verb and an adjective ; and is generally 
formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb : thus, from the 
verb rule, are formed three participles, two simple and one 
compound ; as, 1. ruling, 2. ruled, 3. having ruled. 

7. THE ADVERB. 

An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle^ an 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

adjective, or an other adverb ; and generally expresses 
time, place, degree, or manner : as, They are now here, 
studying very diligently. 

8. THE CONJUNCTION. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or sen- 
tences in construction, and to show the dependence of the 
terms so connected : as, Thou and he are happy, because 
you are good. 

9. THE PREPOSITION. 

A Preposition is a word used to express some relation 
of different things or thoughts to each other, and is gener- 
ally placed before a noun or a pronoun : as, The paper lies 
before me on the desk. 

10. THE INTERJECTION. 

An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indi- 
cate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind : as, Oh ! 
alas ! 



FARSIIVCJ. 

Parsing is the resolving or explaining of a sentence ac- 
cording to the definitions and rules of grammar. 

A perfect definition of any thing or class of things is such 
a description of it, as distinguishes that entire thing or class 
from every thing else in nature. 

A rule of grammar is some law T more or less general, by 
which custom regulates and prescribes the right use of lan- 
guage. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

CHAPTER I.— ETYMOLOGICAL. 

In the First Chapter, it is required of the pupil — merely to dishn 
guish and define the different parts of speech. 

The definitions to be given in the First Chapter, are one, and only 
one, for each word, or part of speech. Thus : 

EXAMPLE PARSED. 

" The patient ox submits to the yoke, and meekly performs 
the labour required of him." 

Th$ . , # , . , is an article. An article is a word placed before 

nouns, to limit their signification. 



ETYMOLOGY. PARStN©. 



29 



Patient . . . . is an adjective. 

Ox is a noun. 

Submits is a verb. 

To is a preposition. 

The is an article. 

Yoke is a noun. 



And 



is a conjunction. 



Meekly is an adverb. 

Performs . . . . . is a verb. 

The is an article. 

Labour is a noun. 



Required 



is a participle. 



Of is a preposition. 



Him is a pronoun. 



An adjective is a word added to a 
noun or prcnoun, and generally 
expresses quality. 

A noun is the name of any person, 
place, or thing, that can be known 
or mentioned. 

A verb is a word that signifies to be, 
to act, or to be acted upon. 

A preposition is a word used to ex- 
press some relation of different 
things or thoughts to each other, 
and is generally placed before a 
noun or a pronoun. 

An article is a word placed before 
nouns, to limit their signification. 

A noun is the name of any person, 
place, or thing, that can be known 
or mentioned. 

A conjunction is a word used to con- 
nect words or sentences in con- 
struction, and to show the depend- 
ence of the terms so connected. 

An adverb is a word added to a verb, 
a participle, an adjective, or an 
other adverb; and generally ex- 
presses time, place, degree, or man- 
ner. 

A verb is a word that signifies to be % 
to act, or to be acted upon. 

An article is a word placed before 
nouns, to limit their signification. 

A noun is the name of any person, 
place, or thing, that can be known 
or mentioned. 

A participle is a word derived from 
a verb, participating the properties 
of a verb and an adjective ; and is 
generally formed by adding ing, d, 
or ed, to the verb. 

A preposition is a word used to ex- 
press some relation of different 
things or thoughts to each other, 
and is generally placed before a 
noun or a pronoun. 

A pronoun is a word used in stead 
of a noun. 



LESSON I. 

The rose, the lily, and the pink, are fragrant flowers. 
A peach, an apple, a pear, or an orange, is delicious. 
A landscape presents a pleasing variety of objects. 
Man is the noblest work of creation. 
The eagle has a strong and piercing eye. 
The swallow builds her nest of mud, and lines it with soft 
feathers. 

3* 



SO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The setting sun gives a beautiful brilliancy to the western 
sky. 

LESSON II. 

Candour, sincerity, and truth, are amiable qualities. 

Virtuous youth gradually brings forward accomplished and 
flourishing manhood. — Blair. 

Injuries retaliated in anger, excite resentment in return. 

All that is great and good in the universe, is on the side of 
clemency and mercy. — Blair. 

Industry is needful in every condition of life : the price of 
all improvement is labour. 

Sloth enfeebles equally the bodily and the mental powers. 
It saps the foundation of every virtue, and pours upon us a del- 
uge of crimes and evils. — Blair. 

LESSON III. 

An idle, mischievous, and disobedient pupil disgraces him- 
self, dishonours his parents, and displeases his teacher. 
Alas ! that such examples are sometimes found ! 
O Virtue ! how miserable are they who forfeit thy rewards ! 

Pleasure's call attention wins, 

Hear it often as we may ; 
New as ever seem our sins, 

Though committed every day. 

O ! then, ere the turf or tomb 

Cover us from every eye, 
Spirit of instruction ! come, 

Make us learn that we must die. — Cawper. 

OF THE ARTICLE. 

An Article is a word placed before nouns, to limit their 
signification : the articles are the, and an or a. 

An and a are one and the same article. An is used when- 
ever the following word begins with a vowel sound ; as, An art, 
an end, an heir, an inch, an ounce, an hour, an urn. — A is 
used whenever the following word begins with a consonant 
sound ; as, A man, a house, a wonder, a one, a yew, a use, a 
ewer. Thus the consonant sounds of w and y, even when ex- 
pressed by other letters, require a and not an before them. 

CLASSES. 

The articles are distinguished as the definite and tha 
indefinite. 



ETYMOLOGY. NOUNS. 31 

I. The definite article is the, which denotes some par- 
ticular thing or things ; as, The boy, the oranges. 

II. The indefinite article is an or a, which denotes one 
thing of a kind, but not any particular one ; as, A boy an 
orange. 

Obs. 1. — The English articles have no grammatical modifications: they 
are not varied by numbers, genders, and cases, as are those of some other 
languages. In respect to class, each is sui generis. 

Obs. 2. — A common noun without an article or other word to limit its 
signification, is generally taken in its widest sense; as, Man is endowed 
with reason. 



OF THE NOUN. 

A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that 
can be known or mentioned : as, George, York, man, 
apple, truth. 

Obs. 1. — All words and signs taken technically, (that is, independently of 
their meaning, and merely as things spoken of,) are nouns; or, rather, are 
things read and construed as nouns; as, " Us is a personal pronoun." — Mur 
ray. " Th has two sounds." — Id. " Control is probably contracted froix 
eounterroll."—Crabb. " Without one if or but." — Cowper. " A is some 
times a noun; as, a great A." — Todd's Johnson. "Formerly sp was cast 
in a piece, as st's are now." — Hist. Printing, 1770. 

Obs. 2. — In parsing, the learner must observe the sense and use of eacL 
word, and class it accordingly : many words commonly belonging to othe_ 
parts of speech, are occasionally used as nouns, and must be parsed as such 
as, 1. "The Ancient of days." — Bible. "Of the ancients." — Swift. " Fo* 
such impertinents." — Steele. " He is an ignorant in it." — Id. " To thu 
nines." — Burns. 2. " Or any he, the proudest of thy sort." — Shak. "I am 
the happiest she in Kent." — Steele. " The shes of Italy." — Shak. " The hes 
in birds." — Bacon. 3. " Avaunt all attitude, and stare, and start theatric !" — 
Cowper. " A may-be of mercy is insufficient." — Bridge. 4. " For the pro* 
ducing of real happiness." — Crabb. "Reading, writing, and ciphering, are 
indispensable to civilized man." 5. " An hereafter." — Addison. "The dread 
of a hereafter."— Fuller. "The deep amen."— Scott. "The while."— Mil- 
ton. 6. "With hark, and whoop, and wild halloo." — Scott. " Will cuts him 
short with a ' What then?'" — Addison. 

CLASSES. 

Nouns are divided into two general classes ; proper and 
common. 

I. A. proper noun is the name of some particular individ- 
ual or people ; as, Adam, Boston, the Hudson, the Romans. 

II. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class 
of things ; as, Beast, bird, fish, insect. 

The particular classes, collective, abstract, and verbal } are usu 
ally included among common nouns. 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A collective noun, or noun of multitude, is the name of many 
individuals together ; as, Council, meeting, committee, flock. 

An abstract noun is the name of some particular quality con- 
sidered apart from its substance ; as. Goodness, hardness, pride, 
frailty. 

A verbal or participial noun is the name of some action or 
state of being ; and is formed from a verb, like a participle, but 
employed as a noun : as, " The triumphing of the wicked is 
short." — Job, xx. 5. 

Obs. 1. — The proper name of a person or place with an article prefixed, 
is generally used as a common noun ; as, "He is tlie Cicero of his age," — 
that is, the orator. "Many a fiery Alp" — that is, mountain: except when 
a common noun is understood; as, The [river] Hudson — The [ship] Amity 
— The treacherous [man] Judas. 

Obs. 2. — A common noun with the definite article prefixed to it, some- 
times becomes proper; as, The Park — The Strand. 

Osb. 3. — The common name of a thing or quality personified often be- 
comes proper; as, "'My power,' said Reason, 4s to advise, not to com- 
pel. 5 " — Johnson. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Nouns have modifications of four kinds ; namely, Per- 
sons, Numbers, Genders, and Cases. 

PERSONS. 

Persons, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish 
the speaker, the hearer, and the person or thing merely 
spoken of. 

Obs. — The distinction of persons is founded on the different relations 
which the objects mentioned may bear to the discourse itself. It belongs 
to nouns, pronouns, and finite verbs; and to these it is always applied, 
either by peculiarity of form or construction, or by inference from the prin- 
ciples of concord. Pronouns are like their antecedents, and verbs are like 
'their subjects, in person. 

There are three persons ; the first, the second, and the 
third. 

The first person is that which denotes the speaker ; 
as, " / Paul have written it." 

The second person is that which denotes the hearer ; 
as, " Robert, who did this ?" 

The third person is that which denotes the person or 
thing merely spoken of; as, "James loves his book." 

Obs. 1. — In written language, the first person denotes the writer or au- 
thor; and the second, the reader or person addressed: except when the 
writer describes not himself, but some one else, as uttering to an other the 
words which he records. 

Obs. 2. — The speaker seldom refers to himself by name, as the speaker ; 
consequently, nouns are rarely used in the first person; and when they 



ETYMOLOGY. NOUNS. S3 

are, a pronoun is usually prefixed to them. Hence some grammarians deny 
the first person to nouns altogether ; others ascribe it ; and many are silent 
on the subject. Analogy clearly requires it ; as may be seen by the follow- 
ing examples: " Adsum Troius iEneas." — Virg. " Callopius recensuV — 
Ter. Corn, apudjinem. " Paul, an apostle, &c. unto Timothy, my own son 
in the faith."— 1 Tim. i. 1. 

Obs. 3. — When a speaker or writer does not choose to declare himself in 
the first person, or to address his hearer or reader in the second, he speaks 
of both or either in the third. Thus Moses relates what Moses did, and 
Caesar records the achievements of Ccesar. So Judah humbly beseeches 
Joseph : " Let thy servant abide in stead of the lad a bondman to my lord." 
— Gen. xliv. 33. And Abraham reverently intercedes with God : "Oh! let 
not the Lord be angry, and I will speak." — Gen. xviii. 30. 

Obs. 4. — When inanimate things are spoken to, they are personified; and 
their names are put in the second person, because by the figure the objects 
are supposed to be capable of hearing. 

NUMBERS. 

Numbers are modifications that distinguish unity and 
plurality. 

Obs. — The distinction of numbers serves merely to show whether we 
speak of one object, or of more. It belongs to nouns, pronouns, and finite 
verbs; and to these it is always applied, either by peculiarity of form, or by 
inference from the principles of concord. Pronouns are like their antece- 
dents, and verbs are like their subjects, in number. 

There are two numbers ; the singular and the plural. 

The singular number is that which denotes but one ; 
as, The boy learns. 

The plural number is that which denotes more than 
one ; as, The boys learn. 

The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by add- 
ing 5 or es to the singular : as, book, books ; box, boxes. 

Rule I. — When the singular ends in a sound which will 
unite with that of 5, the pMiral is generally formed by adding s 
only, and the number of syllables is not increased : as, pen, 
pens ; grape, grapes. 

Rule II. — But when the sound of s cannot be united with 
that of the primitive word, the plural adds s to final e, and es to 
other terminations, and forms a separate syllable : as, page, 
pages ; fox, foxes. 

Obs. 1. — English nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, add es, but 
do not increase their syllables: as, wo, woes; hero, heroes; negro, negroes; 
potato, potatoes; muskitto, muskittoes; octavo, octavoes. The exceptions to 
this rule appear to be in such nouns as are not properly and fully anglicised ; 
thus many write cantos, juntos, solos, &c. Other nouns in o add s only ; as, 
folio, folios ; bamboo, bamboos. So also, two, twos. 

Obs. 2. — Common nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change 
y into i, and add es, without increase of syllables: &s,Jly,Jlies; duty, duties. 
Other nouns in y add s only: as, day, days; valley, valleys: so likewise 
proper names ; as, Henry, the Henrys. 



N 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 3. — The following nouns in f change f into v, and add es, for the 
plural ; sheaf, leaf, loaf, beef, thief, calf, lialf, elf, shelf self, wolf, wharf: as, 
sheaves, leaves, &c. Life, lives; knife, knives; wife, wives; are similar. 
Staff" makes staves: though the compounds of staff are regular ; as, Jlagstaff, 
flagstaff's. The greater number of nouns in ./"and fe, are regular ; as, fifes, 
strifes, chiefs, griefs, gulfs, &c. 

Obs. 4. — The following are still more irregular: man, men; woman, wo- 
men; child, children; brother, brethren [or brothers ;\ foot, feet; ox, oxen; 
tooth, teeth; goose, geese-; louse, lice; mouse, mice; die, dice; penny, pence. 
Dies, stamps, and pennies, coins, are regular. 

Obs. 5. — Many foreign nouns retain their original plural : as, arcanum, 
arcana; datum, data; erratum, errata; effluvium, effluvia; medium, me- 
dia [or mediums;} minutia, minutice; stratum, strata; stamen, stamina; 
genus, genera; genius, genii [geniuses, for men of wit;] magus, magi; 
radius, radii; appendix, appendices [or appendixes ;] calx, calces; index, 
indices [or indexes;] vortex, vortices; axis, axes; basis, bases; crisis, 
crises; thesis, theses; antithesis, antitheses; dicer esis, dicer es es ; ellipsis, 
ellipses; emphasis, emphases; hypothesis, hypotheses; metamorpliosis, meta- 
morphoses; automaton,, automata; criterion, criteria [or criterions;] phe- 
nomenon, phcenomena ; cherub, cherubim ; seraph, seraphim ; beau, beaux [or 
beaus.] 

Obs. 6. — Some nouns (from the nature of the things meant) have no plu- 
ral ; as, gold, pride, meekness. 

Obs. 7. — Proper names of individuals, strictly used as such, have no 
plural. But when several persons of the same name are spoken of, the 
noun becomes in some degree common, and admits the plural form and 
an article; as, Ttie Stuarts — The Ccesars : so likewise when such nouns 
are used to denote character ; as, " The Aristotles, the Tullys, and the 
Livys.' ' — Burgh. 

Obs. 8. — The proper names of nations and societies are generally plural ; 
and, except in a direct address, they are usually construed with the definite 
article: as, The Greeks — The Jesuits. 

Obs. 9. — When a title is prefixed to a. proper name so as to form a sort 
of compound, the name, and not the title, is varied to form the plural ; as, 
The Miss Howards — The two Mr. Clarks. But a title not regarded as a 
part of one compound name, must be made plural, if it refer to more than 
one; as, Messrs. Lambert and Son — The Lords Calihorpe and Erskine- 
The Lords Bishops of Durham and St. David's — TTie Lords Commissioners 
of Justiciary. 

Obs. 10. — Some nouns have no singular ; as, embers, ides, oats, scissors, 
tongs, vespers, literati. 

Obs. 11. — Some nouns are alike in both numbers; as, sheep, deer, vermin, 
swine, hose, means, odds, news, species, series, apparatus. The following are 
sometimes construed as singular, but more frequently, and more properly, as 
plural : alms, amends, pains, riches ; ethics, mathematics : metaphysics, optics, 
politics, pneumatics, and other similar names of sciences. Bellows and gal- 
lows are properly alike in both numbers ; (as, " Let a gallows be made." — 
Esther, v. 14. " The bellows are burned." — Jer. vi. 29 ;) but they have a 
regular plural in vulgar use. Bolus, fungus, isthmus, prospectus, and rebus, 
admit the regular plural. 

Obs. 12. — Compounds in which the principal word is put first, vary the 
principal word to form the plural, and the adjunct to form the possessive 
case ; as, Sing, father-in-law, Plur. fathers-in-law, Poss. father-in-law' 's — 
Sing, court-martial, Plur. courts-martial, Poss. court-martial' s. The Posses- 
sive plural of such nouns, is never used. 

Obs. 13. — Compounds ending in ful, and all those in which the princi- 
pal Word is put last, form the plural in the same manner as other nouns \ 



ETYMOLOGY. NOUNS. 35 

as, hand/ids, spoonfuls, mouthfuls, fellow-servants, man-servants, outpourings, 
ingatherings, downsittings. 

Obs. 14. — Nouns of multitude, when taken collectively, generally ad- 
mit the plural form ; as, meeting, meetings : but when taken distributively, 
they have a plural signification, without the form; as, "The jury were di- 
vided." 

Obs. 15. — When other parts of speech become nouns, they either want 
the plural, or form it regularly, like common nouns of the same endings ; 
as, " His affairs went on at sixes and sevens." — Arbuthnot. "Some math- 
ematicians have proposed to compute by twos; others, by fours; others, by 
twelves" — Churchill. " Three fourths, nine tenths." — Id. " Time's takings 
and leavings" — Barton. " The yeas and nays."— Newspaper. " The ays 
and noes." — Ibid. "The ins and the outs." — Ibid. "His ands and his 
ors." — Mott. " One of the buts." — Fowle. " In raising the mirth of stu- 
pids." — Steele. 

GENDERS, 

Genders are modifications that distinguish objects in re- 
gard to sex./ 

Obs. — The different genders are founded on the natural distinction of sex 
in animals, and on the absence of sex in other things. In English, they be- 
long only to nouns and pronouns ; and to these they are usually applied 
agreeably to the order of nature. Pronouns are of the same gender as the 
nouns for which they stand. 

There are three genders ; the masculine, the feminine^ 
and the neuter. 

The masculine gender is that which denotes animals 
of the male kind ; as, man, father, king'. 

The feminine gender is that which denotes animals 
of the female kind ; as, woman, mother, queen. 

The neuter gender is that which denotes things that 
are neither male nor female ; as, "pen, ink, paper. 

Obs. 1. — Some nouns are equally applicable to both sexes; as, cousin, 
friend, neighbour, parent, person, servant. The gender of these is usually 
determined by the context. To such words, some grammarians have ap- 
plied the unnecessary and improper term common gender. Murray justly 
observes, " There is no such gender belonging to the language. The bu- 
siness of parsing, can be effectually performed without having recourse 
to a common gender." The term is more useful, and less liable to objec- 
tion, as applied to the learned languages ; but with us it is plainly a sole- 
cism. 

Obs. 2. — Generic names, even when construed as masculine or feminine, 
often virtually include both sexes ; as, " Hast thou given the horse strength! 
hast thou clothed his neck with thunder'?" — "Doth the hawk fly by thy 
wisdom, and stretch her wings toward the south'?" — Job. These are called 
epicene nouns. 

Obs. 3. — Those terms which are equally applicable to both sexes, (if 
they are not expressly applied to females,) and those plurals which are 
known to include both sexes, should be called masculine in parsing ; for, 
in all languages, the masculine gender is considered the most worthy, and 
is generally employed when both sexes are included under one common 
term, 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Oes. 4. — The sexes are distinguished in three ways: 

I. By the use of different names : as, bachelor, maid; boy, girl; brother^ 
sister ; buck, doe ; bull, cow ; cock, hen ; drake, duck ; earl, countess ; father , 
mother ; friar, nun ; gander, goose ; hart, roe ; horse, mare ; husband, wife ; 
king, queen; lad, lass; lord, lady; man, woman; master, mistress; milter t 
spawner; nephew, niece; ram, ewe; sloven, slut; son, daughter; stag, hind; 
steer, heifer; uncle, aunt; wizard, witch. 

II. By the use of different terminations: as, abbot, abbess; adminis- 
trator, administratrix ; adulterer, adulteress ; bridegroom, bride ; cater- 
er, cateress ; duke, duchess ; emperor, emperess or empress ; executor, 
executrix; governor, governess; hero, heroine; landgrave, landgravine; 
margrave, margravine; marquis, marchioness; sorcerer, sorceress; sultan, 
sultaness or sultana; testator, testatrix ; tutor, tutoress or tutress ; widower, 
widow. 

The following nouns become feminine by merely adding ess ; baron, dea- 
con, heir, host, jew, lion, mayor, patron, peer, poet, priest, prior, prophet, shep- 
herd, viscount 

The following nouns become feminine by rejecting the last vowel, and 
adding ess; actor, ambassador, arbiter, benefactor, clianter, conductor, doctor, 
elector, enchanter, founder, hunter, idolater, inventor, prince, protector, song- 
ster, spectator, suitor, tiger, traitor, votary. 

III. By prefixing an attribute of distinction : as, cock-sparrow, hen-spar- 
row ; man-servant, maid-servant ; he-goat, she-goat ; male relations, female 
relations. 

Obs. 5. — The names of things without life, used literally, are always 
of the neuter gender. But inanimate objects are often represented figu- 
ratively, as having sex. Things remarkable for power, greatness, or sub- 
limity, are spoken of as masculine ; as, the sun, time, death, sleep, fear, 
anger, winter, war. Things beautiful, amiable, or prolific, are spoken of 
as feminine j as, the moon, earth, nature, fortune, knowledge, hope, spring, 
peace. 

Obs. 6. — Nouns of multitude, when they convey the idea of unity, or 
take the plural form, are of the neuter gender ; but when they convey the 
idea of plurality without the form, they follow the gender of the individuals 
that compose the assemblage. 

Obs. 7. — Creatures whose sex is unknown, or unnecessary to be regard- 
ed, are generally spoken of as neuter; as, "He fired at the deer, and wound- 
ed it." — "If a man shall steal an ox or a sheep, and kill it or sell it;" &c. 
Ex. xxii. 1. 

0ASES. 

Cases are modifications that distinguish the relations of 
nouns and pronouns to other words. 

Obs.— The cases are founded on the different relations under which 
things are represented in discourse, and from which the words acquire 
correspondent relations, or a dependence on each other according to the 
sense. In English, these modifications, or relations, belong only to nouns 
and pronouns. Pronouns are not necessarily like their antecedents, in 
case. 

There are three cases ; the nominative, the possessive} 
and the objective. 

The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or 
pronoun, which denotes the subject of a verb : as, The 
boy runs ; / run. 



ETYMOLOGY. NOUNS. 37 

Obs. — The subject of a verb is that which answers to who or what before 
it; as, " The boy runs " — Who runs'? The boy. Boy is therefore here in 
the nominative case. 

The possessive case is that form or state of a noun or 
pronoun, which denotes the relation of property : as, The 
boy^s hat ; my hat,. 

Obs. 1. — The possessive case of nouns is formed, in the singular number, 
by adding to the nominative s -preceded by an apostrophe ; and, in the plural, 
when the nominative ends in s, by adding an apostrophe only: as, sing, 
boy's; plural, boys 1 . 

Obs. 2. — Plural nouns that do not end in s, usually form the possessive 
case in the same manner as the singular; as, man's, men's. 

Obs. 3. — When the singular and the plural are alike in the nominative, 
the apostrophe, which (as Dr. Johnson has shown) is merely a sign of the 
case, and not of elision, ought to follow the 5 in the plural, to distinguish it 
from the singular ; as, sheep's, sheeps'. 

Obs. 4. — The apostrophic s adds a syllable to the noun, when it will not 
unite with the sound in which the nominative ends; as, torch's, pronounced 
torchiz. 

Obs. 5. — The apostrophe and s are sometimes added to mere characters, 
to denote plurality, and not the possessive case; as, Two a's — three b's — 
four 9's. In the following example they are used to give the sound of a ver- 
bal termination to words that are not properly verbs: " When a man in a 
soliloquy reasons with himself, and proband con's, and weighs all his de- 
signs," &c. — Congreve. 

<The objective case is that form or state of a noun or 
pronoun, which denotes the object of a verb, participle, or 
preposition : as, I know the boy ; he knows me. 

Oes. 1.— The object of a verb, participle, or preposition, is that which an- 
swers to whom or what after it; as, "I know the boy" — I know whom? 
The boy. Boy is therefore here in the objective case. 

Obs. 2. — The nominative and the objective of nouns, are always alike, 
being distinguishable from each other only by their place in a sentence, or 
their simple dependence according to the sense. 

DECLENSION OP NOUNS. 

The declension of a noun is a regular arrangement of its 
numbers and cases. Thus : 







EXAMPLE I. FRIEND. 




Sing. 


Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


friend, Plur. Nom. 
friend's, Poss. 
friend ; Obj. 

EXAMPLE H. MAN. 


friends, 
friends' 
friends. 


Sing. 


Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


man, Plur. Nom. 
man's, Poss. 
man ; Obj. 


men, 

men's, 

men. 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 
EXAMPLE in. FOX. 



Sing. 


Norn. 


fox, 


Plur. 


Nom. 




Poss. 


fox's, 




Poss. 




Obj. 


fox j 




Obj. 






EXAMPLE 


rv. — fly. 


Sing. 


Norn. 


fly, 


Plur. 


Nom. 




Poss. 


fly's, 




Poss. 




Obj. 


fly; 




Obj. 



foxes, 
foxes*, 
foxes. 



flies, 
flies', 
flies. 



EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

CHAPTER II.— ETYMOLOGICAL. 

In the Second Chapter ', it is required of the pupil — to distinguish 
and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modi* 
fications of the articles and nouns. 

The definitions to be given in the Second Chapter, are two for an 
article, six for a noun — and one for an adjective, a pronoun, a 
verb, a participle, an adverb, a conjunction, a preposition, or an 
interjection. Thus : 

EXAMPLE PARSED. 
cc James is a lad of uncommon talents," 

James is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine 
gender, and nominative case. 

1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known 

or mentioned. 

2. A proper noun is the name of some particular individual or people. 

3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely 

spoken of! 

4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 

5. The masculine gender is that which denotes animals of the male 

kind. 

6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, 

which denotes the subject of a verb. 
Is is a verb. 

1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. 
A is the indefinite article. 

1. An article is a word placed before nouns, to limit their significa- 

tion. 

2. The indefinite article is an or a, which denotes one thing of a kind, 

but not any particular one. 
Lad is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine 
gender, and nominative case. 

1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known 

or mentioned. 

2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of things. 



ETYMOLOGY.—- PARSING. 39 

3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely 

spoken of. 

4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 

5. The masculine gender is that which denotes animals of the male 

kind. 

6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, 

which denotes the subject of a verb. 

Of is a preposition. 

1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different 
things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a 
noun or a pronoun. 

Uncommon is an adjective. 

1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally 
expresses quality. 

Talents is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter gen- 
der, and objective case. 

1 . A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known 

or mentioned. 

2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of things. 

3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely 

spoken of. 

4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 

5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male 

nor female. 

6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which 

denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. 

LESSON I. 

Science strengthens and enlarges the mind. — Murray. 

A large ship, traversing the ocean by the force of the wind, 
is a noble proof of the power and ingenuity of man. 

When spring returns, the trees resume their verdure, and the 
plants and flowers display their beauty. 

I John saw these things and heard them. — Bible. 

And the king spake and said to Daniel, ' O Daniel ! servant 
of the living God, is thy God, whom thou servest continually, 
able to deliver thee from the lions V — lb. 

LESSON II. 

And all the king's servants, that were in the king's gate, 
bowed and reverenced Haman ; but Mordecai bowed not, nor 
did him reverence. — Bible. 

Esther put oh her royal apparel, and stood in the inner court 
of the king's house. — lb. 

A mother's tenderness and a father's care are nature's gifts for 
man's advantage. — Murray. 

Then shall, man's pride and dulness comprehend 
His actions', passions', being's use and end. — Pope. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

An Adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and 
generally expresses quality : as, A wise man ; a new book. 
You two are diligent. 

CLASSES. 

Adjectives may be divided into six classes; namely, 
common, proper ', numeral, pronominal, participial, and 
compound. 

I. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or ad- 
jective denoting quality or situation ; as, Good, bad, 
peaceful, warlike — eastern, western, outer, inner. 

II. A proper adjective is one that is formed from a pro- 
per name ; as, American, English, Platonic. 

III. A numeral adjective is one that expresses a defi- 
nite number ; as, One, two, three, four, jive, six, &c. 

IV. A pronominal adjective is a definite word which 
may either accompany its noun, or represent it under- 
stood ; as, M All join to guard what each desires to gain." 
— Pope, That is, All men join to guard what each man 
desires to gain. 

V. A participial adjective is one that has the form of 
a participle, but differs from it by rejecting the idea of 
time ; as, An amusing story. 

VI. A compound adjective, is one that consists of two 
or more words joined by a hyphen ; as Nut-brown, laugh- 
ter-loving, four-footed. 

Obs. 1. — Numeral adjectives are of three kinds: namely, 

1. Cardinal; as, One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, 
eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, &c. 

2. Ordinal; as, First, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, 
ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, &c. 

3. Multiplicative ; as, Single or alone, double or twofold, triple or three- 
fold, quadruple or fourfold, quintuple or fivefold, sextuple or sixfold, septu- 
ple or sevenfold, octuple or eightfold, &c. 

Obs. 2. — Compound adjectives, being formed at pleasure, are very numer- 
ous and various. Many of them embrace numerals, and run on in a series; 
as, one-leaved, two-leaved, three-leaved, four-leaved, &c. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Adjectives have, commonly, no modifications but com- 
parison. 

Comparison is a variation of the adjective to express 
quality in different degrees ; as, hard, harder, hardest. 

There are three degrees of comparison ; the positive, 
the comparative, and the superlative. 



ETYMOLOGY. ADJECTIVES. 41 



The positive degree is that which is expressed by the 
adjective in its simple form ; as, hard, soft, good. 

The comparative degree is that which exceeds the 
positive ; as, harder, softer, better. 

The superlative degree is that which is not exceeded ; 
as, hardest, softest, best. 

Those adjectives whose signification does not admit of 
different degrees, cannot be compared ; as, two, second, all, 
right, immortal, infinite. 

Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but not 
in form, are compared by means of adverbs ; as, skilful, 
vwre skilful, most skilful — skilful, less skilful, least skilful. 

REGULAR COMPARISON. 

Adjectives are regularly compared, when the comparative de- 
gree is expressed by adding er, and the superlative, by adding 
est to them ; as, 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

great, greater, greatest. 

*wide, wider, widest. 

hot, hotter, hottest. 

The regular method of comparison is chiefly applicable 
monosyllables, and to dissyllables ending in y or mute e. 



i to 



COMPARISON BY ADVERBS. 



The different degrees of a quality may also be expressed, 
with precisely the same import, by prefixing to the adjective 
the adverbs more and most : as, wise, more wise, most wise ; fa- 
mous, more famous, most famous ; amiable, more amiable, most 
amiable. 

The degrees of diminution are expressed, in like manner, by 
the adverbs less and least : as, wise, less wise, least wise ; famous, 
less famous, least famous ; amiable, less amiable, least amiable. 

Obs. 1. — Adjectives of more than one syllable, except dissylables end- 
ing in y or mute e, rarely admit a change of termination, but are rather com- 
pared by means of the adverbs : thus we say, virtuous, more virtuous, most 
virtuous ; but not virtuous, virtuouser, virtuousest. 

Obs. 2. — The prefixing of an adverb can hardly be called a variation of 
the adjective ; the words may with more propriety be parsed separately, the 
degree being ascribed to the adverb. 

Obs. 3. — The degrees in which qualities may exist in nature, are infinite- 
ly various; but the only degrees with which the grammarian is concerned, 
are those which our variation of the adjective or adverb enables us to ex- 
press. Whenever the adjective itself denotes these degrees, they properly be- 

* See Rules for Spelling DI. and VI. 
4* 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

long to it ; as, worthy, worthier, worthiest. If an adverb is employed for 
this purpose, that also is compared, and the two degrees formed are properly 
its own ; as, worthy, more worthy, most worthy. But these same degrees 
may be otherwise expressed ; as, worthy, in a higher degree worthy, in the. 
highest degree worthy. Here also the adjective worthy is virtually com- 
pared as before; but only the adjective high is grammatically modified. Many 
grammarians have erroneously parsed the adverbs more and most } less and 
least, as parts of the adjective. 



IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 

The following- adjectives are compared irregularly : good, 
better, best ; bad or ill, worse, worst ; little, less, least ; much, more, 

most ; many, more, most J? 

■ 

Obs. 1. — In English, and also in Latin, most adjectives that denote place 
or situation, not only form the superlative irregularly, but are also either re- 
dundant or defective in comparison. Thus : 

I. The following nine have more than one superlative: far, farther, Jar- 
thest, far most, or fai'thermost ; near, nearer, nearest or next; fore, former, 
foremost or first ; hind, hinder, hindmost or hindermost ; in, inner, inmost 
or innermost ; out, outer, or utter, outmost or utmost, outermost or uttermost ; 
up, upper, upmost or uppermost; low, lower, lowest or lowermost; late, later , 
or latter, latest or last. 

II. The following five want the positive: [aft, adv.] after, aftmost, or af- 
termost; [forth, adv.] further, furthest, ox furthermost; hither, hithermost; 
nether, nethermost ; under, undermost. 

III. The following want the comparative : front, frontmost ; rear, rear- 
most; head, headmost; end, endmost ; top, topmost; down, downmost; mid 
or middle, midst, midmost, or middlemost ; north, northmost ; south, south- 
most; northern, northernmost; southern, southernmost; eastern, eastern- 
most; western, westernmost. 

Obs. 2. — Many of these irregular adjectives are also in common use, as 
nouns, adverbs, or prepositions; the sense in which they are employed will 
show to what class they belong. 

Obs. 3. — The words fore and hind, front and rear, head and end, right 
and left, in and out, high and low, top and bottom, up and down, upper and 
under, mid and after, are often joined in composition with other words; and 
some of them, when used as adjectives of place, are rarely separated from 
their nouns ; as, in-land, mid-sea, after-mges, &c. 

Obs. 4. — It maybe remarked of the comparatives, /orme?- and latter or 
hinder, upper and under or nether, inner and outer or utter, after and hith- 
er ; as well as of the Latin superior and inferior, anterior and posterior, inte- 
rior and exterior, prior and ulterior, senior and junior, major and minor ; 
that they cannot, like other comparatives, be construed with the conjunction 
than, introducing the latter term of comparison ; for we never say, one thing 
is former, superior, fyc. than an other. 

Obs. 5. — Common adjectives, or epithets denoting quality, are more nu- 
merous than all the other classes put together. Many of these, and a few 
that are pronominal, may be varied by comparison ; and some participial ad- 
jectives may be compared by means of the adverbs. But adjectives formed 
from proper names, all the numerals, and most of the compounds, are in no 
way susceptible of comparison. 

Obs. 6. — Nouns are often used as adjectives ; as, An iron bar — An even- 
ing school — A mahogany chair — A South-Sea dream. These also are inca- 
pable of comparison. 

Obs. 7.— The numerals are often used as nouns j and, as 6uch, are regu 



ETYMOLOGY. — PARSING.. 43 

larly declined; as, Such a one — One's own self— The little ones — By tens — 
For twenty's sake — By fifties — Two millions. 

Obs. 8. — Comparatives, and the word other, are sometimes also employed 
as nouns, and have the regular declension; as, Our superiors — His betters — 
The elder's advice — An* other's wo — Let others do as they will. But, as ad- 
jectives, these words are invariable. 

Obs. 9. — Pronominal adjectives, when their nouns are expressed, simply 
relate to them, and have no modifications : except this and that, which form 
the plural these and those ; and much, many, and a few others, which are 
compared. 

Obs. 10. — Pronominal adjectives, when their nouns are not expuessed, 
may be parsed as representing them in person, number, gender, and case ; 
but those who prefer it, may supply the ellipsis, and parse the adjective sim- 
ply as an adjective. 

Obs. 11. — The following are the principal pronominal adjectives: All, 
any, both, each, either, every, few, former, first, latter, last, little, much, 
many, neither, no or none,t one, other, same, some, such, this, that, which t 
what. 

Obs. 12. — Which and wliat, when they are not prefixed to nouns, are, for 
the most part, relative or interrogative pronouns. 



EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

CHAPTER III.— ETYMOLOGICAL. 

In the Third Chapter, it is required of the pupil — to distinguish 
and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modi- 
fications of the articles, nouns, and adjectives. 

The definitions to be given in the Third Chapter, are two for an 
article, six for a noun, three for an adjective — and one for a pro- 
noun, a verb, a participle, an adverb, a conjunction, a preposition^ 
or an interjection. Thus : 

EXAMPLE PARSED. 

u I prefer the shortest course, though some other may be less 
intricate." 

I is a pronoun. 

1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 
Prefer is a verb. 

1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. 
7%e is the definite article. 



* There seems to be no good reason for joining an and other. An here ex- 
cludes any other article ; and analogy and consistency require that the worda 
be separated. Their union has led sometimes to an improper repetition of the 
article ; as, ' Another such a man,' — for, ' An other such man.' 

t No and none seem to be only different forms of the same adjective ; the 
former being used before a noun expressed, and the latter when the noun ia 
understood, or not placed after the adjective ; as, " For none of us tiveth to 
himself, and no man dieth to himself." — Romans, xiv 7 V 



44 . EN GRAMMAR. 

1. An article is a word placed before nouns, to limit their significa- 

tion. 

2. The definite article is the, which denotes some particular thing or 

things. 

Shortest is a common adjective, of the superlative degree ; compared, short, 
sfurrter, shortest. 

1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally 

expresses quality. 

2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting 

quality or situation. 

3. The superlative degree is that which is not exceeded. 

Course is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter 
gender, and objective case. 

1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be 

known or mentioned. 

2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of things. 

3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely 

spoken of. 

4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 

5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male 

nor female. 

6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which 

denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. 

Though is a conjunction. 

1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in 
construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so con- 
nected. 

Some is a pronominal adjective, not compared. 

1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally 

expresses quality. 

2. A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may either accom- 

pany its noun, or represent it understood. 

3. Those adjectives whose signification does not admit of different de- 

grees, cannot be compared. 
Other is a pronominal adjective, representing course understood, in the third 
person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 
[See Obs. 10th, page 43.] 

1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally ex- 

presses quality. 

2. A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may either accom- 

pany its noun, or represent it understood. 

3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely 

spoken of. 

4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 

5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male 

nor female. 

6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, 

which denotes the subject of a verb. 
May be is a verb. 

1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. 
Less is an adverb. 

1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or 
an other adverb ; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or 
manner. 
Intricate is a common adjective, compared by means of the adverbs, 

1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally 
expresses quality. 



ETYMOLOGY. — PRONOUNS. 45 

2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting 

quality or situation. 

3. Those adjectives which may he varied in sense, but not in form, are 

compared by means of adverbs. 

LESSON I. 

There is an easier and better way than this. 

Earthly joys are few and transitory. 

Heavenly rewards are complete and eternal. 

The best and wisest men are sometimes in fault. 

Demosthenes was a famous Grecian orator. 

This plain old man has more wit than all his opponents. 

The three rooms on the second floor, are smaller and less 
convenient than the others. 

The largest and most glorious machines contrived and erect- 
ed by human skill, are not worthy of a comparison with the 
magnificent productions of nature. 

LESSON II. 

The first years of man must make provision for the last. 
External things are naturally variable, but truth and reason 
are always the same. — Johnson. 

1 To him that lives well,' answered the hermit, c every form 
of life is good ; nor can I give any other rule for choice, than 
to remove from all apparent evil.' — Id. 

Come, calm Content, serene and sweet I 
O gently guide my pilgrim feet 

To find thy hermit cell ; 
Where, in some pure are equal sky, 
Beneath thy soft indulgent eye, 

The modest virtues dwell. — Barbauld. 



OF THE PRONOUN. 

A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun : as, The boy 
loves his book ; he has long lessons, and he learns them well. 

Obs. 1. — The word for which a pronoun stands, is called its antecedent^ 
because it usually precedes the pronoun. But some have limited the term 
antecedent, to the word represented by a relative. 

Obs. 2. — The pronouns I and thou in their different modifications, stand 
immediately for persons that are, in general, sufficiently known without be- 
ing named; (7 meaning the speaker, and thou the hearer ;) their antecedents 
are therefore generally understood. 

Obs. 3. — The other personal pronouns are sometimes taken in a general 
or absolute sense, to denote persons or things not previously mentioned ; as, 
"He that hath knowledge, spareth his words." 

Obs. 4. — A pronoun with which a question is asked, stands for some per- 
son or thing unknown to the speaker ; the noun, therefore, cannot occur 
before it, but may be used after it or in stead of it. 






46 , ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 5. — The personal and the interrogative pronouns often stand in 
construction as the antecedents to other pronouns; as, He that arms his 
intent with virtue is invincible." — " Who that has any moral sense, dares 
tell lies V 3 

CLASSES. 

Pronouns are divided into three classes; personal, rel- 
ative, and interrogative. 

I. A personal pronoun, is a pronoun that shows, by 
its form, of what person it is. 

The simple personal pronouns are five : namely, Zy-of 
the first person ; thou, of the second person ; he, she, and 
it, of the third person. 

The compound personal pronouns are also five : name- 
ly, myself, of the first person ; thyself, of the second per- 
son ; himself, herself, and itself, of the third person. 

II. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an 
antecedent word or phrase, and connects different clauses 
of a sentence. 

The relative pronouns are who, which, what, and 
that ; and the compounds whoever or whosoever, which- 
ever or whichsoever, whatever or whatsoever. 

What is a kind of double relative, equivalent to that 
or those which ; and is to be parsed, first as antecedent, 
and then as relative. 

III. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun with 
which a question is asked. 

The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what ; 
being the same in form as relatives. 

Oes. 1. — Who is usually applied to persons only; which, though formerly 
applied to persons, is now confined to animals and inanimate things : what 
(as a mere pronoun) is applied to things only : that is applied indifferently 
to persons, animals, or things. 

Obs. 2. — The pronoun what has a twofold relation, and is often used (by 
ellipsis of the noun) both as antecedent and relative, being equivalent to 
that which or the thing which. In this double relation, what represents two 
cases at the same time: as, "He is ashamed of what he has done;" that is, 
of that [thing] which he has done. It is usually of the singular number, 
though sometimes plural ; as, "I must turn to the faults, or what appear 
such to me." — Byron. " All distortions and mimicries, as such, are what 
raise aversion in stead of pleasure." — Steele. 

Obs. 3. — What is sometimes used both as an adjective and a relative at the 
same time, and is placed before the noun which it represents : as, " What 
money we had was taken away ;" that is, AU the money that we had, &c. 
— •" What man but enters, dies ;" that is, Any man who, &c. " What 
god but enters yon forbidden field." — Pope. Indeed, it does not admit 
of being construed after a noun, as a simple relative. The compound 
whatever or whatsoever has the same peculiarities of construction j as, 



ETYMOLOGY. PRONOUNS. 47 

" We will certainly do whatsoever thing goeth forth out of our own mouth." 
— Jer. xliv. 17. 

Obs. 4. — Who, which, and what, when the affix ever or soever is added, 
have an unlimited signification ; and, as some general term, such as any 
person, or any thing, is usually employed as the antecedent, they are all 
commonly followed by two verbs : as, " Whoever attends, will improve ;" 
that is, Any person wlio attends, will improve. In parsing, supply the ante- 
cedent. 

Obs. 5. — Which and what are often prefixed to nouns as definitive or in- 
terrogative adjectives ; and, as such, may be applied to persons as well as to 
things: as, " What manT— " Which boy V 9 

Obs. 6. — The word that is a relative pronoun, when it is equivalent to 
who, whom, or which; as, "The days that [which] are past, are gone for- 
ever." It is a definitive or pronominal adjective, when it relates to a noun 
expressed or understood after it ; as, " That book is new." In other cases, 
it is a conjunction; as, "Live well, tJiat you may die well." 

Obs. 7. — The relative that has this peculiarity, that it cannot follow the 
word on which its case depends: thus, it is said, [John, xiii. 29.] "Buy 
those things that we have need of;" but we cannot say, " Buy those things 
of that we have need." 

Obs. 8. — The word as, though usually a conjunction or an adverb, has 
sometimes the construction of a relative pronoun ; as, u The Lord added to 
the church daily such [persons] as should be saved." — Acts, ii. 47. 

Obs. 9. — Whether was formerly used as an interrogative pronoun, refer- 
ring to one of two things; as, " Whether is greater, the gold or the templet* 
— Matt, xxiii. 17. 

Obs. 10. — Interrogative pronouns differ from relatives chiefly in this ; 
that, as the subject referred to is unknown to the speaker, they do not 
relate to a preceding noun, but to something which is to be expressed in the 
answer to the question. Their person, number, and gender, therefore, are 
not regulated by an antecedent noun ; but by what the speaker supposes of 
a subject which may, or may not, agree with them in these respects ; as, 
" What lies there 1" Ans. " Two men asleep." . 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Pronouns have the same modifications as nouns ; 
namely. Persons, Numbers, Genders, and Cases. 

Obs. 1. — In the personal pronouns, most of these properties are distin- 
guished by the words themselves ; in the relative and the interrogative pro- 
nouns, they are ascertained chiefly by the antecedent and the verb. 

Obs. 2. — The personal pronouns of the first and second persons, are 
equally applicable to both sexes ; and should be considered masculine or 
feminine according to the known application of them. [See Levizac's 
French Gram. p. 73.] The speaker and the hearer, being present to each 
other, of course know the sex to which they respectively belong; and, 
whenever they appear in narrative, we are told who they are. In Latin, an 
adjective or a participle relating to these pronouns, is varied to agree with 
them in number, gender, and case; as, 

Miserce hoc tamen unum 
Exequere, Anna, mihi : solam nam perfidus ille 
Te colere, arcanos etiam tibi credere sensus ; 
Sola viri molles aditus et tempora n6ras. — Virgil. 

Obs. 3. — Many grammarians deny the first person of nouns, and the 
gender of pronouns of the first and second persons; and at the same time 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

teach, that; " Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, and the 
nouns for which they stand, in gender, number, and person." — Murray's 
Cham. 2d Ed. 1796. Now, no two words can agree in any property which 
belongs not to both ! 

DECLENSION OP PRONOUNS. 

The declension of a pronoun is a regular arrangement of its 
numbers and cases. 

SIMPLE PERSONALS. 

The simple personal pronouns are thus declined : 

I, of the first person, any* gender. 
Sing. Nom. I, Plur. Nom. we, 

Poss. my, or mine, Poss. 

Obj. me; Obj. us. 

Thou, of the second person, any gender. 

Sing. Nom. thou, Plur. Nom. ye,f or you, 

Poss. thy, or thine, Poss. your, or yours, 

Obj. thee; Obj. you. 

He, of the third person, masculine gender. 
Sing. Nom. he, Plur. Nom. they, 

Poss. his, Poss. their, or theirs, 

Obj. him; Obj. them. 

She, of the third VERSON,femi?iine gender. 
Sing. Nom. she, Plur. Nom. they, 

Poss. her, or hers, Poss. their, or theirs, 

Obj. her; Obj. them. 

It, of the third person, neuter gender. 
Sing. Nom. it, Plur. Nom. they, 

Poss. its,! Poss. their, or theirs, 

Obj. it; Obj. them. 

* That the pronouns of the first and second persons are sometimes mascu- 
line and sometimes feminine, is perfectly certain ; but whether they can or 
cannot be neuter, is a question difficult to be decided. To things inanimate 
they are only applied figuratively ; and the question is, whether the figure al- 
ways necessarily changes the gender of the antecedent noun. Pronouns aro 
of the same gender as the nouns for which they stand ; and if, in the follow- 
ing example, gold and diamond are neuter, so is the pronoun me. And, if not 
neuter, of what gender are they ? 

" Where thy true treasure I Gold says, ' Not in me ;' 
And, * Not in me,' the diamond. Gold is poor." — Young. 

t The use of the pronoun ye is confined to the solemn style, and to the bur- 
lesque. In the latter, it is sometimes improperly used for the objective case. 

t In ancient times, he, his, and him, were applied to things neuter. In our 
translation of the Bible, the pronoun it is employed in the nominative and the 



ETYMOLOGY. PRONOUNS. 49 

Obs. 1. — Most of the personal pronouns have two forms of the possessive 

case, in each number : as, my or mine, our or ours ; thy or thine, your or 
yours; her or hers, their or theirs. The former is used before a noun ex- 
pressed; the latter, when the governing noun is understood, or so placed 
as not immediately to follow the pronoun; as, "My powers sue thine." — 
Montgomery. 

Obs. *2. — Mine and thine were formerly used before all words beginning 
with a vowel sound; my and thy, before others: as, " It was thou, a man, 
mine eqizal, my guide, and mine acquaintance." — Psalm. But this usage 
is now obsolete, or peculiar to the poets ; as, 

" Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow." — Byron. 

COMPOUND PERSONALS. 

The word self* added to the simple personal pronouns, forms 
the class of compound 'personal pronouns ; which are used when 
an action reverts upon the agent, and also when some persons 
are to be distinguished from others : as, sing, myself, plur. our- 
selves ; sing, thyself plur. yourselves; sing, himself \ plur. them- 
selves ; sing, herself plur. themselves ; sing, itself, plur. themselves. 
They all want the possessive case, and are alike in the nomi- 
native and objective. 

RELATIVES AND INTERROGATIVE^. 

The relative and the interrogative pronouns are thus de- 
clined : 

Who, applied only to persons. 
Sing. Nom. who, Plur. Nom. who, 

Poss. whose, Poss. whose, 

Obj. whom; Obj. whom. 

Which, applied to animals and things. 
Sing. Nom. which, Plur. Nom. which, 

Poss. X P° ss - 

Obj. which Obj. which 

What, generally applied to things. 
Sing. Nom. what, Plur. Nom. what, 

Poss. Poss. 

Obj. what; Obj. what. 

objective, but his is retained in the possessive, neuter ; as, " Look not thou 
upon the wine, when it is red, when it giveth his colour in the cup, when it 
moveth itself aright."— Prov. xxiii, 31. Its is not found in the Bible, except 
by misprint. 

* The word self was originally an adjective ; but when used alone, it is 
now generally a noun. This may have occasioned the diversity in the forma- 
tion of the compound personal pronouns. Dr. Johnson calls self a pronoun ; 
but he explains it as being both adjective and substantive. 

t His self itsself and their selves, are more analogical than himself, itself, 
themselves; but custom has rejected the former, and established tha lat+er. 
When an adjective is prefixed to self, the pronouns are written separately is» 
the possessive case ; as, My single self— My own self— His own self— Their 
own selves. 

t Whose is sometimes used as the possessive case of which ; as, " A religion 
whose origin is divine." — Blair. 

5 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

That, applied to persons, animals, and things. 
Sing. Norn, that, Plur. Norn, that, 

Poss. * Poss. . 

Obj. that; Obj. that 

COMPOUND RELATIVES. 

The compound relative pronouns, whoever or whosoever, which 
ever or whichsoever, and whatever or whatsoever, are declined in 
the same manner as the simples, who, which, what. 



EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

CHAPTER IV.— ETYMOLOGICAL. 

In the Fourth Chapter, it is required of the pupil — to distin- 
guish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes 
and modifications of the articles, nouns, adjectives, and pro- 
nouns. 

The definitions to be given in the Fourth Chapter are, two for an 
article, six for a noun, three, for an adjective, six for a pronoun 
— and one for a verb, a participle, an adverb, a conjunction, a 
preposition, or an interjection. Thus : 

EXAMPLE PARSED. 

" She met them/ 

She is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, feminine 
gender, and nominative case. • 

1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 

2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what 

Eerson it is. 
e third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely 
spoken of. 

4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 

5. The feminine gender is that which denotes animals of the female 

kind. 

6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, 

which denotes the subject of a verb. 
Met is a verb. 

1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. 
Tliem is a personal pronoun, of the third person, plural number, masculine 

gender, and objective case. 

1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 

2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what 

person it is. 

3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely 

spoken of. 

4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 

5. The masculine gender is that which denotes animals of the male 

kind. 

6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which 

denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. i 



ETYMOLOGY. — VERBS. 



51 



LESSON I. 

I who was present, know the particulars. 
He who has not virtue, is not truly wise. 
An enemy that disguises himself under the veil of friendship, 
is worse than one that declares open hostility. 

He that improperly reveals a secret, injures both himself and 
them to whom he tells it. 

Eye me, blest Providence, and square my trial 
To my proportion'd strength ! — Shepherd, lead on. 

LESSON II. 

All men have their frailties. Whoever looks for a friend 
without imperfections, will never find what he seeks : we love 
ourselves with all our faults ; and we ought to love our friends 
in like manner. 

Selina's benevolence and piety engaged the esteem of all 
who knew her. 

When the Saxons subdued the Britons, they introduced into 
England their own language ; which was a dialect of the Teu- 
tonic, or Gothic. — Allen. 

LESSON III. 

Disguise thyself as thou wilt, still, Slavery ! still thou art a bit- 
ter draught ; and though thousands in all ages have been made 
to drink of thee, thou art no less bitter on that account.— Sterne. 

Redeem we time ? — its loss we dearly buy. 

What pleads Lorenzo for his high-priz'd sports ? 

He pleads time's numerous blanks ; he loudly pleads 

The straw-like trifles on life's common stream. 

From whom those blanks and trifles, but from thee ? 

No blank, no trifle, nature made or meant. — Young. 

/\ OF THE VERB. 

A Verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be 
acted upon : as, I am, I rule, I am ruled ; I love, thou 
lovest, he loves. 

CLASSES. 

Verbs are divided, with respect to their form, into two 
classes ; regular and irregular. 

I. A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and 
the perfect participle by assuming d or ed ; as, love, Ioved, 
loving, Iovkd. 

II. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the 



&2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed ; 
see^ saw, seeing, seen. 

Obs. — Regular verbs form their preterit and perfect participle, by adding 
d to final e, and ed to all other terminations. The verb hear, heard, hearing , 
heard, adds d to r, and is therefore irregular. 

Verbs are divided, with respect to their signification into 
four classes: active-transitive, active-intransitive, pas- 
sive, and neuter. 

I. An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an 
action which has some person or thing for its object ; as, 
" Cain slew Abel." 

II. An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses 
an action which has no person or thing for its object ; as, 
" John walks." 

III. A passive verb is a verb that represents its subject, 
or nominative, as being acted upon ; as, " I am com- 
pelled" 

IV. A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither^c- 
tion nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being ; as, 
" Thou art — He sleeps." 

Obs. 1. — In most grammars and dictionaries, verbs are divided into three 
classes only ; active, passive, and neuter. In such a division, the class of ac- 
tive verbs includes those only which are active-transitive^ and all the active'- 
intransitive verbs are called neuter. But, in the division adopted above, ac- 
tive-intransitive verbs are made a distinct class ; and those only are regarded 
as neuter, which imply a state of existence without action. When, there- 
fore, we speak of verbs without reference to their regimen, we apply the sim- 
ple term active to all those which express action, whether transitive or intran- 
sitive. " We act whenever we do any thing ; but we may act without doing 
any thing." — Crabb's Synonymes. 

Obs. 2. — Active-transitive verbs generally take the agent before them 
and the object after them ; as, " Caesar conquered Pompey." Passive verbs 
(which are derived from active-transitive verbs) reverse this order, and de- 
note that the subject, or nominative, is affected by the action ; and the agent 
follows, being introduced by the preposition by: as, " Pompey was conquered 
by Caesar." 

Obs. 3. — Most active verbs may be used either transitively or intransi- 
tively. Active verbs are transitive when there is any person or thing ex- 
pressed or clearly implied, upon which the action terminates ; when they do 
not govern such an object, they are intransitive. 

Obs. 4. — Some verbs may be used either in an active or a neuter sense. 
In the sentence, "Here I rest," rest is a neuter verb; but in the sentence, 
"Here I rest my hopes," rest is an active-transitive verb, and governs 
hopes. 

Obs. 5. — An active-intransitive verb, followed by a preposition and its ob- 
ject, will sometimes admit of being put into the passive form, the object of 
the preposition being assumed for the nominative, and the preposition being 
retained with the verb, as an adverb : as, (Active,) " They laughed at him." — 
£P<wive t ) "He was laughed at." 



ETYMOLOGY. — VERBS. 53 

MODIFICATIONS. 

^Yerbs have modifications of four kinds ; namely, Moods, 
Tenses ; Persons, and Numbers. 

MOODS. 

Moods are different forms of the verb, each of which 
expresses the being, action, or passion, in some particular 
manner. 

There are five moods ; the Infinitive, the Indicative, 
the Potential, the Subjunctive, and the Imperative. 

The Infinitive mood is that form of the verb, which ex- 
presses the being, action, or passion, in an unlimited man- 
ner, and without person or number : as, To read, to speak. 

The Indicative mood is that form of the verb, which 
simply indicates, or declares a thing : as, I write ; you 
know : or asks a question ; as, Do you know ? 

The Potential mood is that form of the verb, which ex- 
presses the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity, of the 
being, action, or passion : as, I can read ; we must go. 

The Subjunctive mood is that form of the verb, which re- 
presents the being, action, or passion, as conditional, doubt- 
ful, or contingent: as, "If though, see that thou offend not." 

The Imperative mood is that form of the verb, which 
is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permit- 
ting: as, " Depart thou." — u Be comforted? — " Forgive 
me." — " Go in peace." 

Obs. 1. — The infinitive mood is distinguished by the preposition to, 
which, with a few exceptions, immediately precedes it. In dictionaries, 
to is generally prefixed to verbs, to distinguish them from other parts of 
speech. 

Oes. 2. — The 'potential mood is known by the signs may, can, must, might, 
could, would, and should. This mood as well as the indicative may be uded 
in asking a question ; as, Must we go ? 

Obs. 3. — The subjunctive mood is alwa)^s connected with an other verb. 
Its dependence is usually denoted by a conjunction j as, if, that, though, lest, 
unless. 

Obs. 4. — The indicative and potential moods, in all their tenses, may be 
used in the same dependent manner ; but this seems not to be a sufficient 
reason for considering them as parts of the subjunctive mood.* 

* In regard to the number and form of the tenses which should constitute the 
subjunctive mood in English, grammarians are greatly at variance ; and some, 
supposing its distinctive parts to be but elliptical forms of the indicative or the po- 
tential, even deny the existence of such a mood altogether. On this point, the 
instructions published by Lindley Murray are exceedingly vague and inconsis- 
tent. The early editions of his grammar gave to this mood six tenses, none of 
which had any of the personal terminations. His later editions make the sub 
junctive exactly like the indicative, except in the present tense, and in the 
choice of auxiliaries for the second-future. Both ways he goes too far. And 
while at last he restricts the distinctive form of the subjunctive to narrower 

5* 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

TENSES. 

Tenses are those modifications of the verb, which distin- 
guish time. 

There are six tenses ; the Present, the Imperfect* tha 
Perfect, the Pluperfect, the First-future, and the Second- 
future. 

The Present tense is that which expresses "frhat now 
exists or is taking place : as, " I hear a noise ; somebody 
is coming? 

The Imperfect tense is that which expresses what took 
place, within some period of time fully past : as, " We saw 
him last week ; I admired his behaviour." 

The Perfect tense is that which expresses what has 
taken place, within some period of time not yet fully past : 
as, " I have seen him to-day." 

The Pluperfect tense is that which expresses what 
had taken place at some past time mentioned : as, " I 
had seen him, when I met you." 

The First-future tense is that which expresses what 
will take place hereafter : as, "I shall see him again." 

The Second-future tense is that which expresses what 
will have taken place, at some future time mentioned : 
as, " I shall have seen him by to-morrow noon." 

Obs. 1. — The terms here defined are the names usually given to those 
parts of the verb to which they are in this work applied ; and though some 
of them are not so strictly appropriate as scientific names ought to be, we 
think k inexpedient to change them. 

bounds than he ought, and argues against, If thou loved, If thou knew, &c. he 
givea this mood not only the last five tenses of the indicative, but also all those 
of the potential ; alleging, " that as the indicative mood is converted into the 
subjunctive, by the expression of a condition, motive, wish, supposition, &c. 
being superadded to it, so the potential mood may,. in like manner, be turned 
into the subjunctive." — Mur. Gr. Oct. p. 82. According to this, the subjunc- 
tive mood of every regular verb embraces, in one voice, as many as one hun- 
dred and thirty-eight different expressions ; and it may happen that in one sin- 
gle tense a verb shall have no fewer than fifteen different forms in each person 
and number. Six times fifteen are ninety ; and so many are the several phrases 
which now compose Murray's pluperfect tense of the subjunctive mood of the 
verb to strow — a tense which most grammarians very properly reject as need- 
less ! But this is not all. The scheme not only confounds the moods, and 
overwhelms the learner with its multiplicity, but condemns as bad English 
what the author himself once adopted as the imperfect subjunctive, " If thou 
loved," &c. wherein he was sustained by Dr. Priestley and others of high au- 
thority. Dr. Johnson, indeed, made the preterit subjunctive like the indicative ; 
and this may have induced the author to change his plan, and inflect this part 
of the verb with st. But Dr. Alexander Murray very positively declares this 
to be wrong: "When such words asif, though, unless, except, whether, and 
the like, are used before verbs, they lose their terminations of est, eth, and s, 
in those persons which commonly have them. No speaker of good English, 
expressing himself conditionallv, says, Though thou faUest, or Though he falls, 
but, Though thou fall, and Though he fau ; nor Though thou earnest but 
Though, or although, thou came,"— Histl Europ. Lang. i. p. 55*J 



. 



ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. 55 

Obs. 2. — The tenses do not all express time with equal precision. Those 
of the indicative mood, are the most definite. The time expressed by the 
same tenses in the other moods, is frequently relative, and sometimes in- 
definite. 

Obs. 3. — The present tense, in the indicative mood, expresses general 
truths, and customary actions; as, "Vice produces misery." — "She often 
visits us." We also use it in speaking of persons who are dead, but whose 
works remain ; as, " Seneca reasons well." 

Obs. 4. — The present tense in the subjunctive mood, and in the other 
moods when preceded by as soon as, after, before, till, or when, is generally 
used with reference to future time ; as, "If he ask a fish, will he give him a 
serpent 1" — Matt. vii. 10. " When he arrives, I will send for you." 

Obs. 5. — In animated narrative, the present tense is sometimes substituted 
(by the figure enallage) for the imperfect; as, "As he lay indulging himself 
in state, he sees let down from the ceiling a glittering sword, hung by a sin- 
gle hair." — TV*, of Cicero. " Ulysses wakes, not knowing where he was." — 
Pope. 

Obs. 6. — The present infinitive can scarcely be said to express any par- 
ticular time. It is usually dependent on an other verb, and, therefore, rela- 
tive in time. It may be connected with any tense of any mood; as, "I in- 
tend to do it, I intended to do it, I have intended to do it;" &c. It is often 
used to express futurity; as, " The time to come." — "The world to come" — 
** Rapture yet to be." 

Obs. 7. — The imperfect tense of the indicative mood, in its simple form, is 
called the preterit; as, loved, saw, was. 

Obs.. 8. — The perfect tense, like the present, is sometimes used with 
reference to future time; as, "He will be fatigued before he has walked a 
mile." 

Obs. 9. — The pluperfect tense is often used conditionally, without a con- 
junction; as, " Had I seen you, I should have stopped." 

PERSONS AND NUMBERS. 

The person and number of a verb, are those modifica- 
tions in which it agrees with its subject or nominative. 

In each number, there are three persons ; and in each 
person, two numbers : thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1st per. I love, 

2d per. Thou lovest, * 
3d per. He loves ; 

Obs. 1. — Thus the verb in some of its parts, varies its termination to 
distinguish or agree with, the different persons and numbers. The change 
is, however, principally confined to the second and third persons singular 
of the present tense of the indicative mood, and to the auxiliaries hast 
and has of the perfect. In the ancient biblical style, now used only on 
solemn occasions, the second person singular is distinguished through all 
the tenses of the indicative and potential moods. And as the use of the 
pronoun thou is now mostly confined to the solemn style, the terminations 
of that style are retained in all our examples of the conjugation of verbs. 
In the plural number, there is no variation of ending, to denote the dif- 
ferent persons; and the verb in the three persons plural, is the same as 
in the first person singular. As the verb is always attended by a noun 
or a pronoun, expressing the subject of the affirmation, no ambiguity 



Plural. 
1st per. We love, 
2d per. You love, 
3d per. They love. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

arises from the Want of particular terminations in the verb to distinguish the 
different persons and numbers. 

Obs. 2. — Persons in high stations, being usually surrounded by attend- 
ants, it became, many centuries ago, a species of court flattery, to address 
individuals of this class, in the plural number. And the practice extended, 
in time, to all ranks of society : so that, at present the customary mode 
of familiar as well as complimentary address, is altogether plural; both 
the verb and the pronoun being used in that form. This practice, which 
confounds one of the most important distinctions of the language, affords 
a striking instance of the power of fashion. The society of Friends or 
Quakers, however, continue to employ the singular number in familiar 
discourse; and custom, which has now destroyed the compliment of the 
plural, has placed the appropriate form, (at least as regards them,) on an 
equality with the plural in point of respect. The singular is universally 
employed in reference to the Supreme Being; and is generally preferred in 
poetry. It is the language of Scripture, and is consistently retained in all 
our grammars. 

Obs. 3. — As most of the peculiar terminations by which the second per- 
son singular of verbs is properly distinguished in the solemn style, are not 
only difficult of utterance, but are quaint and formal in conversation ; the 
preterits and auxiliaries are seldom varied in familiar discourse, and the 
present is generally simplified by contraction. A distinction between the 
solemn and the familiar style, has long been admitted, in the pronunciation 
of the termination ed, and in the ending of the verb in the third person sin- 
gular ; and it is evidently according to good taste and the best usage, to ad- 
mit such a distinction in the second person singular. In the familiar use of 
the second person singular, the verb is usually varied only in the present 
tense of the indicative mood, and in the auxiliary hast of the perfect. This 
method of varying the verb renders the second person singular analogous to 
the ihird, and accords with the practice of the most intelligent of those who 
retain the common use of this distinctive and consistent mode of address; 
It disencumbers their familiar dialect of a multitude of harsh and useless ter- 
minations, which serve only, when uttered, to give an uncouth prominency 
to words not often emphatic ; and, without impairing the strength or per- 
spicuity of the language, increases its harmony, and reduces the form of the 
verb in the second person singular nearly to the same simplicity as in the 
other persons and numbers.* 

* The writings of the Friends being mostly of a grave cast, afford but few 
examples of their customary mode of forming the verb in connexion with the 
pronoun thou, in familiar discourse. The following may serve to illustrate it : 
" To devote all thou had to his service" — " If tjiou should come" — " What thou 
said" — "Thou kindly contributed" — "The Epistle which thou sent me" — 
"Thou would perhaps allow" — "If thou submitted" — "Since thou left" — 
" Should thou act " — " Thou may be ready " — " That thou had met " — " That 
thou had intimated " — " Before thou puts " [putst] — " What thou meets " 
[meetst] — " If thou had made " — " I observed thou was " — " That thou might 
put thy trust" — "Thou had been at my house." J. KENDALL. "Thou 
may be plundered " — " That thou may feel " — " Though thou waited long, 
And sought him" — "I hope thou will bear my style" — "Thou also knows" 
[knowst] — " Thou grew up " — " I wish thou would yet take my counsel." S. 
CRISP. " Thou manifested thy tender regard, stretched forth thy delivering 
hand, and fed and sustained us." S. FOTHERGILL. The writer has met 
with thousands that used the second person singular in conversation, but never 
with one that employed, on ordinary occasions, all the regular endings of the 
solemn style. The simplification of the second person singular, which, to a 
greater or less extent, is everywhere adopted by the Friends, and which ia 
nere defined and explained, removes from each verb eighteen of these peculiar 
terminations ; and, (if the number of English verbs be, as stated by several gram- 
marians, 8000,) disburdens their familiar dialect of 144,000 of these awkward 



ETYMOLOGY. — VERBS. 57 

Where the verb is varied, the second person singular is regu 
larly formed by adding st or est to the first person ; and the 
third person singular, in like manner, by adding 5 or es ; as, I 
see, thou seest, he sees ; I give, t) ou givest, he gives ; I go, thou. 
goest, he goes ; I fly, thou fliest. he flies ; I vex, thou vexest, he 
vexes ; I Zos£, thou losest, he Zoses. 

Obs. 1. — In the solemn style, (except in Poetry, which usually contracts* 
these forms,) the second person singular of the present indicative, and thatot 

and useless appendages. This simplification is supported by usage as exten- 
sive as the familiar use of the pronoun thou ; and is also in accordance with 
the canons of criticism. " All words and phrases which are remarkably harsh 
and unharmonious, and not absolutely necessary, should be rejected." — Camp- 
beWs Philosophy of Rhetoric, Sec. 2, Canon First. With the subject of this 
note, those who put you for thou, can have no concern ; and many may think 
it unworthy of notice, because Murray has said nothing about it. We write 
not for or against any sect, or any man ; but to teach all who desire to know 
the grammar of our tongue. And who is he that will pretend that the solemn 
style of the Bible may be used in familiar discourse, without a mouthing affec- 
tation ? In preaching , the ancient terminations of est for the second person 
singular and eth for the third, as well as ed pronounced as a separate syllable 
for the preterit, are admitted to be in better taste than the smoother forms of 
the familiar style ; because the latter, though now frequently heard in relig- 
ious assemblies, are not so well suited to the dignity and gravity of a sermon 
or a prayer. In grave poetry also, especially when it treats of scriptural sub- 
jects, to which you put for thou is obviously unsuitable, the personal termina- 
tions of the verb, which from the earliest times to the present day have usual- 
ly been contracted and often omitted by the poets, ought perhaps still to be in- 
sisted on, agreeably to the notion of our tuneless critics. The critical objec- 
tion to their elision, however, can have no very firm foundation while it is ad- 
mitted by the objectors themselves, that, " Writers generally have recourse to 
this mode of expression, that they may avoid harsh terminations." — Irving' 's El. 
Eng. Composition, p. 12. But if writers of good authority, such as Pope, Swift, 
and Pollok, have sometimes had recourse to this method of simplifying the verb, 
even in the solemn style, the elision may, with tenfold stronger reason, be ad- 
mitted in familiar writing or discourse, on the authority of general custom 
among those who choose to employ the pronoun thou in conversation. 

Some of the Friends (perhaps from an idea that it is less formal) misemploy 
thee for thou, and often join it to the third person of the verb in stead of the 
second. Such expressions as, tnee does, thee is, thee has, thee thinks, &c. are 
double solecisms ; they set all grammar at defiance. Many persons who are 
not ignorant of grammar, and who employ the pronoun aright, sometimes im- 
properly sacrifice concord to a slight improvement in sound, and give to the 
verb the ending of the third person for that of the second. Three instances 
of this occur in the examples quoted in the preceding paragraph. See also 
the following, and many more, in the works of the poet Burns ; who says of 
himself, " Though it cost the schoolmaster some thrashings, I made an excel- 
lent English scholar ; and, by the time I was tenor eleven years of age, I was 
a critic in substantives, verbs, and particles:" — "But when thou pours" — 
" There thou shines chief" — "Thou clears the head" — "Thou strings the 
nerves"—" Thou brightens black despair"—" Thou comes"—" Thou travels 
far'' — " Thou paints" — " Unseen thou lurks" — " O thou pale orb that silent 
shines." This mode of simplifying the verb confounds the persons ; and as it 
has little advantage in sound, over the regular contracted form of the second 
person, it ought to be avoided. It is too frequently used by the poets. 

* The second person singular may be contracted i whenever the verb ends 
in a sound which will unite with that of st. The poets generally employ the 
contracted forms, but they seem not to have adopted a uniform and consistent 
method of writing them. Some insert the apostrophe, and, after a single vow- 
el, double the final consonant before st ; as, hold'st, bidd'st, said'st, ledd'st, 
may'st, mighVst, <fec. : others add st 3nly, and form permanent contractions ; 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the irregular preterits,* commonly end in est, pronounced as a separate 
syllable. But as the termination ed, in solemn discourse, constitutes a sylla- 
ble, the regular preterits form the second person singular, by adding st, with- 
out further increase of syllables ; as, loved, lovedst — not lovedest. Dost and 
hast, and the irregular preterits wast, didst, and hadst, are permanently con- 
tracted. The auxiliaries shall and will, change the final I to t. To the 
auxiliaries may, can, might, could, would, and should, the termination est was 
formerly added ; but they are now generally written with st only, and pro- 
nounced as monosyllables, even in solemn discourse. 

Obs. 2. — The third person singular was anciently formed by adding th to 
verbs ending in e, and eth to all others. This method of forming the third 
person singular, almost always adds a syllable to the verb. It is now con- 
fined to the solemn style, and is little used. Doth, hath, and saith, are con- 
tractions of verbs thus formed. 

Obs. 3. — When the second person singular is employed in familiar dis- 
course, it is usually formed in a manner strictly analogous to that which is 
now adopted in the third person singular. When the verb ends in a sound 
which will unite with that of st or s, the second person singular is formed 
by adding st only, and the third, by adding s only ; and the number of syl- 
lables is not increased : as, I read, thou readst, he reads; I know, thou knowst, 
he knows ; I take, thou takest, he takes. For when the verb ends in mute 
e, no termination renders this e vocal in the familiar style, if a syndesis can 
take place. 

Obs. 4. — But when the verb ends in a sound which will not unite with 
that of st or s, st and s are added to final e, and est and es to other termina- 
tions; and the verb acquires an additional syllable: as, I trace, thou tracest, 
he traces ; I pass, thou passest, he passes ; I fix, thou fixest, he fixes. But 
verbs ending in o or y preceded by a consonant, do not exactly follow this 
rule : in these, y is changed into i; and to both o and i, est and esare added 



as, holdst, bidst, saidst, ledst, mayst, mightst, &c. Some retain the vowel in 
the termination of certain words, and suppress a preceding one ; as, quick'nest, 
happ'nest, scatt'rest, slumb'rest, slumb'redst: others contract the termination 
of such words, and insert the apostrophe ; as, quicken' st, happen' st, scatter' st, 
slumber' st, slumber'dst. The nature of our language, the accent and pronun- 
ciation of it, incline us to contract even all our regular verbs ; so as to avoid, 
if possible, an increase of syllables in the inflection of them. Accordingly, 
several terminations which formerly constituted distinct syllables, have been 
either wholly dropped, or blended with the final syllables of the verbs to which 
they are added. Thus the plural termination en has become entirely obsolete ; 
th or eth is no longer in common use ; ed is contracted in pronunciation ; the 
ancient ys or is, of the third person singular, is changed to s or es, and is usual- 
ly added without increase of syllables ; and st or est has, in part, adopted the 
analogy. So that the proper mode of forming these contractions of the second 
person singular, seems to be, to add st only, and to insert the apostrophe, 
when a vowel is suppressed from the verb to which this termination is added ; 
as, thinkst, sayst, bidst, lov'st, lov'dst, slumberst, slumber'dst. 

* Some grammarians say, that, whenever the preterit is like the present, it 
should take edst for the second person singular. This rule gives us such 
words as cast-edst, cost-edst, bid-dedst, burst-edst, cut-tedst, hit-tedst, let-tedst, 
put-tedst, hurt-edst, rid-dedst, shed-dedst, &c. The few examples which may 
be adduced from ancient writings, in support of this rule, are undoubtedly 
formed in the usual manner from regular preterits now obsolete ; and if this 
were not the case, no person of taste could think of employing derivatives so 
uncouth. Dr. Johnson has justly remarked, that " the chief defect of our lan- 
guage, is ruggedness and asperity." And this defect is peculiarly obvious, 
when even the regular termination of the second person singular is added to 
our preterits. Accordingly we find numerous instances among the poets, both 
ancient and modern, in which that termination is omitted. — [See Percy's Re- 
liques of Ancient Poetry, everywhere.] 



ETYMOLOGY. — VERBS. 59 

without increase of syllables : as, I go, thou goest, he goes; I undo, thou un* 
doesi* he undoes; IJly, thou Jliest, hejlies; Ipity, thou pitiest, he pities. 

Obs. 5. — The formation of the third person singular of verbs, is precisely 
the same as that of the plural number of nouns. 

Obs. 6. — The auxiliaries do dost, does, [pronounced doo, dust, duz,]— • 
am, art, is, — have, hast, has, — being also in frequent use as principal verbs of 
the present tense, retain their peculiar form when joined to other verbs. The 
other auxiliaries are not varied, except in the solemn style. 

Obs. 7. — The only regular terminations that are added to verbs, are 
ing, d or ed, st or est, s or es, th or eth. Ing, and th or eth, always ada 
a syllable to the verb; except in doth, hath, saith. The rest, whenever 
their sound will unite with that of the final syllable of the verb, are add- 
ed without increasing the number of syllables; otherwise, they are sepa- 
rately pronounced. In solemn discourse, however, ed and est are, by most 
speakers, uttered distinctly in all cases ; except sometimes, when a vowel 
precedes. 

CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

The conjugation of a verb is a regular arrangement of 
its moods, tenses, persons, numbers, and participles. 

Obs. — The moods and tenses are formed partly by inflections, or changes 
made in the verb itself, and partly Dy the combination of the verb or its par- 
ticiple, with a few short verbs called auxiliaries, or helping verbs. 

There are four principal parts in the conjugation 
of every simple and complete verb ; namely, the Present '; 
the Preterit, the Imperfect Participle, and the Perfect 
Participle. A verb which wants any of these parts, is call- 
ed defective. 

Obs. — The present is radically the same in all the moods, and is the part 
from which all the rest are formed. The present infinitive is the root, or 
simplest form, of the verb. The preterit and the perfect participle are regu- 
larly formed by adding d or ed, and the imperfect participle by adding ing % 
to the present. 

An auxiliary is a short verb prefixed to one of the prin- 
cipal parts of an other verb, to express some particular 
mode and time of the being, action, or passion. The aux- 
iliaries are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, and must, 
with their variations. 

Obs. 1. — Do, be, and have, being also principal verbs, are complete : but 
the participles of do and have, are not used as auxiliaries ; unless having, 
which forms the compound participle, may be considered as such. The 
other auxiliaries have no participles. 

Obs. 2. — English verbs are principally conjugated by means of auxili- 
aries ; the only tenses which can be formed by the simple verb, being the 
present and the imperfect ; as, I love, I loved. And even here an auxiliary 

* The second person singular of the simple verb do, is now usually written 
dost, and read dust ; being contracted in orthography, as well as pronuncia- 
tion. And perhaps the compounds may follow ; as, Thou undost, outdost, mis- 
dost, overdost, &c. But exceptions to exceptions are puzzling, even when 
they conform to the general rule. 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

is usually preferred in questions and negations ; as, Do you love ? You do 
not love. All the other tenses, even in their simplest form, are compounds. 

Obs. 3. — The form of conjugating the active verb is often called the Ac- 
tive Voice ; and that of the passive verb, the Passive Voice. These terms 
are borrowed from the Latin and Greek grammars, and are of little or no 
use iii English. 

Obs. 4. — English verbs having few inflections, it is convenient to insert 
in the conjugations the preposition to, to mark the infinitive ; pronouns, to 
distinguish the persons and numbers ; the conjunction if, to denote the sub- 
junctive; and the adverb not, to show the form of negation. With these 
additions, a verb may be conjugated in four ways : 

1. Affirmatively ; as, I write, I do write, or I am writing. 

2. Negatively ; as, I write not, I do not write, or, I am not writing. 

3. Interrogatively ; as, Write 1 1 Do I write ? or, Am I writing ? 

4. Interrogatively and negatively; as, Write I nof? Do I not write? or 

Am I not writing ? 

I. SIMPLE FORM, ACTIVE OR NEUTER. 

The simplest form of an English conjugation, is that 
which makes the present and imperfect tenses without aux- 
iliaries ; but, even in these, auxiliaries are required for the 
potential mood, and are often preferred for the indicative. 

FIRST EXAMPLE. 

The regular active verb LOVE, conjugated affirmcutivly. 

Principal Parts. 

Present, Prtterit. Imper. Participle. Perfect Participle. 

Love. Loved. Loving. Loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

The infinitive mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the being, 
action, or passion, in an unlimited manner, and without person or number. 
It is used only in the present and perfect tenses. 

Present Tense. 

This tense is the root, or radical verb ; and is usually preceded by the 
preposition to, which shows its relation to some other word : thus, 

To Love. 

Perfect Tense. 
This tense prefixes the auxiliary have to the perfect participle, and is 
usually preceded by the preposition to : thus, 

To have loved. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or 
declares a thing, or asks a question. It is used in all the tenses. 

Present Tense. 
The present indicative, in its simple form, is essentially the same as the 
present infinitive, or radical verb; except that the verb be has am in the 
indicative. 



ETYMOLOGY. — VERBS. 61 

1. The simple form of the present tense is varied thus: 

Singular. Plural 

1st per. I love, 1st per. We love, 

2d per. Thou lovest, 2d per. You love, 

3d per. He loves ; 3d per. They love. 

2. This tense may also be formed by prefixing the auxiliary 
do to the verb : thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I do love, 1. We do love, 

2. Thou dost love, 2. You do love, 

3. He does love ; 3. They do love. 

Imperfect 'lense. 

This tense, in its simple form, is the preterit ; which, in all regular verbs, 
adds d or ed to the present, but in others is formed variously. 

1. The simple form of the imperfect tense is varied thus : 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I loved, 1. We loved, 

2- Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 

3 He loved ; 3. They loved. 

2. This tense may also be ^ite. ie a uy prefixing the auxiliary 
did to the present : thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I did love, 1. We did love, 

2. Thou didst love, 2. You did love, 

3. He did love; 3. They did love. 

Obs. — In a familiar question or negation, the auxiliary form is preferable 
to the simple. But in the solemn or the poetic style, the simple form is 
more dignified and graceful : as, " Under standcst thou what thou readestT 1 
— * Of whom speaketh the prophet this V — Acts, viii. 30, 34. " What ! heard 
ye not of lowland war 1" — Scott. 

Perfect Tense. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliary have to the perfect participle : thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 

3. He has loved ; 3. They have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
This tense prefixes the auxiliary had to the perfect participle : thus, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 

3 He had loved; 3. They had loved, * r 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

First-future Tense. 
This tense prefixes the auxiliary shall or will to the present : thus, 

1. Simply* to express a future action or event : 

Singular. Plural 

1. I shall love, 1. We shall love, 

2. Thou wilt love, 2. You will love, 

3. He will love; 3. They will love. 

2. To express a promise, volition, command, or threat : 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I will love, 1. We will love, 

2. Thou shalt love, 2. You shall love, 

3. He shall love ; 3. They shall love. 

Obs. — In interrogative sentences, the meaning of these auxiliaries is re- 
versed. When preceded by a conjunction implying condition or uncertain- 
ty, their import is somewhat varied. 

Second-future Tense. 
This tense prefixes the auxiliaries shall have or will have to the perfect par- 
ticiple: thus, 

Singular. m Plural. 

1. I shall have \ove£. cl P°" 1. We shall have loved, 

2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved, 

3. He will have loved ; 3. They will have loved. 

Obs. — The auxiliary shall may also be used in the second and third per- 
sons of this tense, when preceded by a conjunction expressing condition or 
contingency j as, " If he shall have finished his work when I return." 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

The potential mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the power, 
liberty, possibility, or necessity, of the being, action, or passion. It. is used 
in the first four tenses. 

Present Tense. 
This tense prefixes the auxiliary may, can, or must, to the radical verb : 
thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may love, 1. We may love, 

2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, 

3. He may love ; 3. They may love. 

Imperfect' Tense. 
This tense prefixes the auxiliary might, could, would, or should, to the 
radical verb: thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might love, 1. We might love, 

2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, 

3. He might love; 3. They might love. 



ETYMOLOGY. — VERBS. 63 

Perfect Tense. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliaries, may have, can have, or must have, to the 
perfect participle : thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 

2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved, 

3. He may have loved ; 3. They may have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliaries, might have, could have, would have, or 
should have, to the perfect participle : thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved. 

2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, 

3. He might have loved ; 3. They might have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

The subjunctive mood is that form of the verb, which represents the be- 
ing, action, or passion, as conditional, doubtful, or contingent. This mood 
is generally preceded by a conjunction ; as, if, that, though, lest, unless, &c. 
It does not vary its termination, in the different persons. It is used in the 
present, and sometimes in the imperfect tense ; rarely in any other. As this 
mood can be used only in a dependent clause, the time implied in its tenses 
is always relative, and generally indefinite. 

Present Tense. 

This tense is generally used to express some condition on wliich a future 
action or event is affirmed. It is therefore considered by some grammarians, 
as an elliptical form of the future. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love, 1. If we love, 

2. If thou love, 2. If you love, 

3. If he love; 3. If they love. 

Obs. — In this tense the auxiliary do is sometimes employed; as, "If 
thou do prosper my way." — Gen. xxiv. 42. "If he do not utter it." — 
Lev. v. 1. 

Imperfect Tense. 

This tense, as well as the imperfect of the potential mood, with which 
it is frequently connected, is properly an aorist, or indefinite tense; and 
it may refer to time past, present, or future : as, " If therefore perfection 
•mere by the Levitical priesthood, what further need was there," &c. — 
Heb. vii. 11. " If the whole body were an eye, where were the hearing'?" 
— 1 Cor. xii. 17. " If it were possible, they shall deceive the very elect.— 
Matt. xxiv. 24. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I loved, 1. If we loved, 

2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved, 

3. If he loved; 3. If they loved* 



*64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
The imperative mood is that form of the verb, which is used in command- 
ing, exhorting, entreating, or permitting. It is commonly used only in the 
6econd person of the present tense. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. 2. Love [thou,] or Do thou love ; 

Plural. 2. Love [ye or you,] or Do you love. 

Oss.-— In the Gi*eek language, which has three numbers, the impera- 
tive mood is used in the second and third persons of them all ; and has 
also several different tenses, some of which cannot be clearly rendered in 
English. In Latin this mood has a distinct form for the third person both 
singular and plural. In Italian, Spanish, and French, the first person 
plural is also given it. Imitations of some of these forms are occasional- 
ly employed in English, particularly by the poets. Such imitations must 
be referred to this mood, unless by ellipsis and transposition we make 
them out to be something else. The following are examples : " Blessed 
be he that blesseth thee." — Gen. xxvii. 29. "Thy kingdom come." — Matt. 
vi. 10. 

" Fall he that must, beneath his rival's arms, 
And live the rest, secure of future harms." — Pope. 

" My soul, turn from them — turn we to survey," &c. — Goldsmith. 

PARTICIPLES. 

1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect 3. The Pluperfect. 
Loving. Loved. Having loved. 




SYNOPSIS OF THE FIRST EXAMPLE. 

First Person Singular. 
Ind. I love, I loved, I have loved, I had loved, I shall love, 
I shall have loved. Pot. I may love, I might love, I may have 
loved, I might have loved. Subj. If I love, If I loved. 

Second Person Singular. 
Ind. Thou lovest, Thou lovedst, Thou hast loved, Thou 
hadst loved, Thou wilt love, Thou wilt have loved. Pot. 
Thou mayst love, Thou mightst love, Thou mayst have loved, 
Thou mightst have loved. Subj. If thou love, If thou loved. 
Imp. Love [thou,] or Do thou love. 

Third Person Singular. 

Ind. He loves, He loved, He has loved, He had loved, He 
will 3ove, He will have loved. Pot. He may love, He might 
love, He may have loved, He might have loved. Subj. If he 
love, If he loved. 

First Person Plural. 

Ind. We love, We loved, We have loved, We had loved, 
We shall love, We shall have loved. Pot. We may love, 
We might love, We may have loved, We might have loved. 
Subj. If we love, If we loved. 



m. i/.iOi.uGY. VERBS. 



65 



Second Person Plural. 
Ind. You love, You loved, You have loved, You had loved, 
You will love, You will have loved. Pot. You may love, 
You might love, You may have loved, You might have loved. 
Subj. If you love, If you loved. Imp. Love [ye or you,] or 
Do you love. 

Third Person Plural. 
Ind. They love, They loved, They have loved, They had 
loved, They will love, They will have loved. Pot. They may 
love, They might love, They may have loved, They might have 
loved. Subj. If they love, If they loved. 

Obs. — In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb, is 
usually formed thus : Ind. Thou lov'st, Thou loved, Thou hast loved, Thou 
had loved, Thou will love, Thou will have loved. Pot. Thou may love, 
Thou might love, Thou may have loved, Thou might have loved. Subj. If 
thou love, If thou loved. Imp. Love [thou,] or Do thou love. 

^J~~~ SECOND EXAMPLE. 

/ The irregular active verb SEE, conjugated affirmatively. 

Principal Parts. 

Present. Preterit. Imp. Participle. Pcrf. Participle. 
See. Saw. Seeing. Seen. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

To see. 
Perfect Tense. 
To have seen. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I see, 

2. Thou seest, 

3. He sees; 



Singular. 
I saw, 
Thou sawest, 
He saw : 



Imperfect Tense. 



Perfect Tense. 
Singular. 

I have seen, 1. 

Thou hast seen, 2. 



3. He has seen ; 



3. 



6* 



Plural. 
We see, 
You see, 
They see. 

Plural. 
We saw, 
You saw, 
They saw. 

Plural. 
We have seen, 
You have seen, 
They have seen. 






€6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had seen, 1. We had seen, 

2. Thou hadst seen, 2. You had seen, 

3. He had seen ; 3. They had seen. 

. First-future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall see, 1. We shall see, 

2. Thou wilt see, 2. You will see, 

3. He will see ; 3. They will see. 

Second-future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have seen, 1. We shall have seen, 

2. Thou wilt have seen, 2. You will have seen, 

3. He will have seen ; 3. They will have seen. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may see, 1. We may see, 

2. Thou mayst see, 2. You may see, 

3. He may see ; 3. They may see. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might see, 1. We might see, 

2. Thou mightst see, 2. You might see, 
1. He might see ; 1. They might see. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have seen, 1. We may have seen, 

2. Thou mayst have seen, 2. You may have seen, 

3. He may have seen ; 3. They may have seen. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have seen, 1. We might have seen, 

2. Thou mightst have seen, 2. You might have seen, 
2. He might have seen ; 3. They might have seen. 





SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 


Singular. 

1. If I see, 

2. If thou see, 

3. If he see j 


Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. If we see, 

2. If you see, 

3. If they see. 



ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. 67 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I saw, 1. If we saw, 

2. If thou saw, 2. If you saw, 

3. If he saw ; 3. If they saw. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. 2. See [thou,] or Do thou see ; 

Plural. 2. See [ye or you,] or Do you see. 

PARTICIPLES. 

1. The Imperfect. 2. The Pe? fed. 3. The Pluperfect 
Seeing. Seen. Having seen. 

Obs. — In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb, is 
usually formed thus : Ind. Thou seest, Thou saw, Thou hast seen, Thou had 
seen, Thou will see, Thou will have seen. Pot. Thou may see, Thou might 
see, Thou may have seen, Thou might have seen. Subj. If thou see, If 
thou saw. Imp. See [thou,] or Do thou see. 

THIRD EXAMPLE. 

The irregular neuter verb BE, conjugated affirmatively. 
Principal Parts. 
Present. Preterit. Imp. Participle. Perf. Participle, 
Be. Was. Being. Been. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
To be. 

Perfect Tense. 
To have been. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Obs. — Be was formerly used in the indicative present: as, "We be twelve 
brethren." — Gen. xlii. 3*2. " What be these two olive branches V — Zech. iv. 
12. But this construction is now obsolete. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am, 1. We are, 

2. Thou art, 2. You are, 

3. He is;* 3. They are. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was, 1. We were, 

2. Thou wast, 2. You were, 

3. He was ; 3. They were. 



M 



1 


ENGLISH GTtAMMAR. 


1. 


Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 
I have been, 1. We have been, 


2. 


Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 


3. 


He has been ; 3. They have been. 


1. 


Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural 
I had been, 1. We had been, 


2. 


Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 


3. 


He had been ; 3. They had been. 


1. 


First-future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 
I shall be, 1. We shall be. 


2. 


Thou wilt be, 2. You will be, 


3. 


He will be; 3. They will be. 






Second-future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 

2. Thou wilt have been, 2. You will have been, 

3. He will have been ; 3. They will have been. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be, 1. We may be, 

2. Thou mayst be, 2. You may be, 

3. He may be ; 3. They may be. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

Y. I might be, 1. We might be, 

2. Thou mightst be, 2. You might be, 

3, He might be ; 3. They might be. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 

2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 

3. He may have been ; 3. They may have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 I might have been, 1. We might have been, 

2, Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 

3 He might have been; 3. They might have been. 






ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. 



69 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. f v 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural 

1. If I be, 1. If we be, 

2. If thou be, 2. If you be, 

3. If he be; 3. If they be. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were, 1. If we were, 

2. If thou wert, 2. If you were, 

3. If he were ; . 3. If they were, 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. 2. Be [thou,] or Do thou be ; 

Plural. 2. Be [ye or you,] or Do you be. 

' PARTICIPLES. 

1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Pluperfect. 

Being. Been. Having been. 

Obs. — In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb is usual- 
ly formed thus : Ind. Thou art, Thou was, Thou hast been, Thou had been, 
Thou will be, Thou will have been. Pot. Thou may be, Thou might be, 
Thou may have been, Thou might have been. Subj. If thou be, If thou 
were. Imp. Be [thou,] or Do thou be. 

II. COMPOUND FORM, ACTIVE OR NEUTER. 

Active and neuter verbs may also be conjugated, by ad- 
ding the Imperfect Participle to the auxiliary verb be, 
through all its changes ; as, I am writing — He is sitting. 
This form of the verb denotes a continuance* of the ac~ 
tion or the state of being, and is, on many occasions, pref- 
erable to the simple form of the verb. 

Obs. — Verbs of this form have sometimes a passive signification ; as, " The 
books are now selling." — Allen's Gram. p. 82. " It requires no motion in 
the organs whilst it is forming." — Murray's Gram. p. 8". "While the work 
of the temple was carrying on." — Dr. J. Owen. "The designs of Provi- 
dence are carrying on." — Bp. Butler. " We are permitted to know nothing 
of what is transacting in the regions above us." — Dr. Blair. Expressions 
of this kind are condemned by some critics ; but the usage is unquestiona- 
bly of far better authority, and (according to my apprehension) in far better 
taste, than the more complex phraseology which some late writers adopt in 
its stead ; as, " The books are now being sold." 



* Those verbs which, in their simple form, imply continuance, do not ad- 
mit the compound form ; thus we say, " I respect him ;" but not, " I am respect" 
ing him." 



-/ 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

FOURTH EXAMPLE. 

The irregular active verb READ, conjugated affirmatively in the 

Compound Form. 

Principal Parts of the Simple Verb. 

Present Preterit. Imp. Participle. Perf. Participle. 

Read. Read. Reading. Read. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

To be reading. 

Perfect Tense. 

To have been reading. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am reading, 1. We are reading, 

2. Thou art reading, 2. You are reading, 

3. He is reading ; 3. They are reading. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was reading, 1. We were reading, 

2. Thou wast reading, 2. You were reading, 

3. He was reading ; 3. They were reading. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been reading, 1. We have been reading, 

2. Thou hast been reading, 2. You have been reading, 

3. He has been reading ; 3. They have been reading. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been reading, 1. We had been reading, 

2. Thou hadst been reading, 2. You had been reading, 

3. He had been reading ; 3. They had been reading. 

First-future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall be reading, 1. We shall be reading, 

2. Thou wilt be reading, 2. You will be reading, 

3. He will be reading ; 3. They will be reading. 

Second-future Tense. 
Singular. 1. I shall have been reading, 

2. Thou wilt have been reading, 

3. He will have been reading ; 






ETYMOLOGY. — VERBS. Yf 

Plural. 1. We shall have been reading, 

2. You will have been reading, 

3. They will have been reading. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be reading, 1. We may be reading, 

2. Thou mayst be reading, 2. You may be reading, 

3. He may be reading ; 3. They may be reading. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be reading, 1. We might be reading, 

2. Thou mightst be reading, 2. You might be reading, 

3. He might be reading ; 3. They might be reading. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular* I. I may have been reading, 

2. Thou mayst have been reading, 

3. He may have been reading ; 
Plural. 1. We may have been reading, 

2. You may have been reading, 

3. They may have been reading. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. 1. I might have been reading, 

2. Thou mightst have been reading, 

3. He might have been reading ; 
Plural. 1. We might have been reading, 

2. You might have been reading, 

3. They might have been reading, 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural, 

1. If I be reading, 1. If we be reading, 

2. If thou be reading, 2. If you be reading, 

3. If he be reading; 3. If they be reading. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were reading, 1. If we were reading, 

2. If thou wert reading, 2. If you were reading, 

3. If he were reading ; 3. If they were reading. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Sing. 2. Be [thou] reading, or Do thou be reading. 

Plur. 2. Be [ye or you] reading, or Do you be reading. 



79 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

# I 

PARTICIPLES. 

1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Pluperfect 

Being reading. Having been reading. 

Obs. — In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb, is 
usually formed thus : Ind. Thou art reading, Thou was reading, Thou 
hast been reading, Thou had been reading. Thou will be reading, Thou 
will have been reading. Pot. Thou may be reading, Thou might be read- 
ing, Thou may have been reading, Thou might have been reading. Sub J. 
If thou be reading, If thou were reading. Imp. Be [thou] reading, or Do 
thou be reading. 

III. FORM OF PASSIVE VERBS. 

Passive verbs, in English, are always of a compound 
form ; being made from active-transitive verbs, by adding 
the Perfect Participle to the auxiliary verb be, through 
all its changes : thus, from the active-Xransitive verb love, 
is formed the passive verb be lovedTf** 

Obs. 1. — A few active-intransitive verbs, that merely imply motion, or 
change of condition, may be put into this form, with a neuter signification ; 
making not passive but neuter verbs, which express nothing more than the 
state which results from the change : as, I am come ; He is risen ; They are 
JaUen. Our ancient writers, after the manner of the French, very frequent- 
ly employed this mode of conjugation in a neuter sense; but, with a few ex- 
ceptions, present usage is clearly in favour of the auxiliary have in preference 
to be, whenever the verb formed with the perfect participle is not passive ; 
as, They have arrived — not, They are arrived. 

Obs. 2. — Passive verbs may be distinguished from neuter verbs of the 
same form, by a reference to the agent or instrument ; which frequently is, 
and always may be expressed after passive verbs ; but which never is, and 
never can be, expressed after neuter verbs : as, " The thief has been caught 
by the officer." — " Pens are made with a knife." 

FIFTH EXAMPLE. 

The regular passive verb BE LOVED, conjugated affirmatively 
Principal Parts of the Active Verb. 

Present Preterit. Imper. Participle. Perfect Participle, 

Love. Loved. Loving. Loved, 

i INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

To be loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

To have been loved. 





INDICATIVE MOOD. 




1. 

2. 
3. 


Present Tense. 
Singular. 
I am loved, 1. We 
Thou art loved, 2. You 
He is loved; 3. They 


Plural. 
are loved, 
are loved, 
are loved. 




ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. 73 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was loved, 1. We were loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, 2. You were loved, 

3. He was loved ; 3. They were loved. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved, 1. We have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved. 2. You have been loved, 

3. He has been loved ; 3. They have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, 

3. He had been loved ; 3. They had been loved. 

First-future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall be loved, 1. We shall be loved, 

2. Thou wilt be loved, 2. You will be loved, 

3. He will be loved ; 3. They will be loved, 

Second-future Tense. 

Singular. 1. I shall have been loved, 

2. Thou wilt have been loved, 

3. He will have been loved ; 
Plural 1. We shall have been loved, 

2. You will have been loved, 

3. They will have been loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may b.e loved, 1. We may be loved, 

2. Thou mayst be loved, 2. You may be loved, 

3. He may be loved ; 3. They may be loved, 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I misrht be loved, 1. We might be loved, 

2. Thou mightst be loved, 2. You might be loved, 

3. He might l)e loved ; 3. They might be loved 



74 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Perfect Tense. 

Singular. 1. I may have been loved, 

2. Thou mayst have been loved, 

3. He may have been loved ; 
Plural. 1. We may have been loved, 

2. You may have been loved, 

3. They may have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. 1. I might have been loved, 

2. Thou mightst have been loved, 

3. He might have been loved ; 
Plural. 1. We might have been loved, 

2. You might have been loved, 

3. They might have been loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Singular. 

1. If I beloved, 

2. If thou be loved, 

3. If he be loved ; 



Singular. 

1. If I were loved, 

2. If thou wert loved, 

3. If he were loved ; 



Present Tense. 

Plural. 

1. If we be loved, 

2. If you be loved, 

3. If they be loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Plural. 

1. If we were loved, 

2. If you were loved, 

3. If they were loved. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. 2. Be [thou,] loved, or Do thou be loved ; 

Plural. 2. Be [ye or you,] loved, or Do you be loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Pluperfect. 

Being loved. Loved. Having been loved. 

Obs. — In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb, is 
usually formed thus : Ind. Thou art loved, Thou was loved, Thou hast been 
loved, Thou had been loved, Thou will be loved, Thou will have been loved. 
Pot. Thou may be loved, Thou might be loved, Thou may have been loved, 
Thou might have been loved. Subj. If thou be loved, If thou were loved. 
Imp, Be [thou] loved, or Do thou be loved. 

IV. FORM OF NEGATION. 

A verb is conjugated negatively, by placing the adverb 
not after it, or after the first auxiliary ; but the infinitive 
and participles take the negative first : as, 



ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. 75 

Inf. Not to love, Not to have loved. Ind. I love not, or I 
do not love, I loved not, or I did not love, I have not loved, 
I had not loved, I shall not love, I shall not have loved. Pot. 
I may, can,* or must not love ; I might, could, would, or should 
not love ; I may, can, or must not have loved ; I might, could, 
would, or should not have loved. Subj. If I love not, If I loved 
not Part. Not loving, Not loved, Not having loved. 

V. FORM OF QUESTION. 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively, in the indicative 
and potential moods, by placing the nominative after it, or 
after the first auxiliary : as, 

Ind. Do I love ? Did I love ? Have I loved ? Had I loved ? 
Shall I love ? Shall I have loved ? Pot. May, can, or must i 
love ? Might, could, would, or should I love ? May, can, oi 
must I have loved? Might, could, would, or should I have 
loved? 

VI. FORM OF QUESTION WITH NEGATION. 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively and negatively, in 
the indicative and potential moods, by placing the nomina- 
tive and the adverb not after the verb, or after the first 
auxiliary: as, 

Inp. Do I not love? Did I not love? Have I not loved? 
Had I not loved ? Shall I not love ? Shall I not have loved ? 
Pot. May, can, or must I not love ? Might, could, would, or 
should I not love ? May, can, or must I not have loved ? Might, 
could, would, or should I not have loved ? 

IRREGULAR VERBS. 

An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the pre- 
terit and perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 

Obs. 1 . — When the verb ends in a sharp consonant, t is sometimes im- 
properly substituted for ed, making the preterit and the perfect participle ir- 
regular in spelling, when they are not so in sound : as, distrest for distressed, 
tost for tossed, curst for cursed, crackt for cracked. 

Obs. 2. — When the verb ends with a smooth consonant, the substitu- 
tion of t for ed produces an irregularity in sound, as well as in writing. 
In some such irregularities, the poets are indulged for the sake of rhyme ; 
but the best speakers and writers of prose prefer the regular form wherever 
good use has sanctioned it: thus, learned is better than learnt; burned, 

* When power is denied, can and not are united to prevent ambiguity ; as, 
" I cannot go." But when the power is affirmed, and something else is denied, 
the words are written separately ; as, " The Christian apologist can not merely 
expose the utter baseness of the infidel assertion, but he has positive ground 
for erecting an opposite and confronting assertion in its place." — Dr. Chalmers 



76 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



than burnt; penned, than pent; absorbed, than absorpt ; spelled, than apelt; 
smelted, than smelt. 

Obs. 3. — Several of the irregular verbs are variously used by the best au- 
thors ; and many preterits and participles which were fomerly in good use, 
are now obsolete, or becoming so. 

Obs. 4. — The simple irregular verbs are about 170 in number, and are 
nearly allmonosyllables. They are derived from the Saxon, in which Ian-, 
guage they are also, for the most part, irregular. 

Obs. 5. — The following alphabetical list exhibits the simple irregular verbs, 
as they are now generally used. Where the regular form is preferable, it is 
inserted first, and at full length ; those winch have a regular form less au- 
thorized, are marked with the letter i?. 



LIST OP THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Present. 


Preterit. 


Imp. Participle. 


Perf. Paiiiciple. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abiding, 


abode. 


Be, 


was, 


being, 


been. 


Bear, 


bore or bare, 


bearing, 


borne or born.* 


Beat, 


beat, 


beating, 


beaten or beat 


Begin, 


began, 


beginning, 


begun. 


Bend, 


bent, R. 


bending, 


bent, R. 


Beseech, 


besought. 


beseeching, 


besought. 


Bid, 


bid or bade, 


bidding, 


bidden or bid. 


Bind, 


bound, 


binding, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


biting, 


bitten or bit 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bleeding, 


bled. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blowing, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke. 


breaking, 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred. 


breeding, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


bringing, 


brought. 


Build, 


built, R. 


building, 


built, R. 


Burst, 


burst, 


bursting, 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


buying, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


casting, 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, R. 


catching, 


caught, R. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chiding, 


chidden or chid. 


Choose, 


chose, 


choosing, 


chosen. 


Cleave,f 


cleft or clove, 


cleaving, 


cleft or cloven. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clinging, 


clung. 


Clothe, 


clothed or clad, 


clothing, 


clothed or clad. 


Come, 


came, 


coming, 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


costing, 


cost. 


Crow, 


crowed or crew, 


crowing,. 


crowed. 


Creep, 


crept, R. 


creeping, 


crept. R. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cutting, 


cut. 






* Borne signifies carried; born signifies brought forth. 
t Cleave to split, is irregular as above ; cleave, to stick, is regular, but c&zve 
was formerly used in the preterit. 



ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. 



77 



Present. 


Preterit, 


Imp. Participle. 


Perf. Participle. 


Dare, 


dared or durst, 


daring, 


dared. 


Deal, 


dealt, R. 


dealing, 


dealt, R. 


Dig, 


dug, R. 


digging. 


dug, R. 


Do, 


did, 


doing, 


done. 


Draw, 


drew. 


drawing, 


drawn. 


Dream, 


dreamt, R. 


dreaming, 


dreamt, R. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driving, 


driven. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drinking, 


drunk. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, R. 


dwelling, 


dwelt, R. 


Eat, 


ate or eat, 


eating, 


eaten. 


Fall, 


fell, 


falling, 


fallen. 


Feed, 


fed, 


feeding, 


fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 


feeling, 


fek 


Fight, 


fought, 


fighting, 


fought. 


Find, 


found, 


finding, 


found, 


Flee, 


fled, 


fleeing, 


fled. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flinging, 


flung. 


Fly, 


flew, 


%ing ? 


flown. 


Forsake. 


, forsook, 


forsaking, 


forsaken. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


freezing, 


frozen. 


Get, 


g ot , 


getting, 


got or gotten. 


Gild, 


gilt, R. 


gilding, 


gilt, R. 


Gird, 


girt, R. 


girding, 


girt, R. 


Give, 


gave, 


giving, 


given. 


Go, 


went, 


g°ing, 


gone. 


Graved, 


graved, 


graving, 


graved or graven, 


Grind, 


ground, 


grinding, 


ground. 


Grow, 


grew, 


growing, 


grown. 


Hang, 


hung, R. 


hanging, 


hung, R. 


Have, 


had, 


having, 


had. 


Hear, 


heard, 


hearing, 


heard. 


Heave, 


heaved or hove, 


heaving, 


heaved or hoven, 


Hew, 


hewed 5 


hewing, 


hewed or hewn. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hiding, 


hidden or hid. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hitting, 


hit. 


Hold, 


held, 


holding, 


held. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurting, 


hurt. 


Keep, 


kept, 


keeping, 


kept. 


Kneel, 


kneeled or knelt, 


kneeling, 


kneeled or knelt 


Knit, 


knit, R. 


knitting, 


knit, R. 


Know, 


knew, 


knowing, 


known. 


Lade, 


laded, 


lading, 


laden, R. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laying, 


laid. 


Lean, 


leaned or leant, 


leaning, 


leaned or leant 


Lead, 


led, 


leading. 


led. 


Leave, 


left, 


leaving, 


left 



7# 



78 

Present. 

Lend, 

Let, 

Lie, 

Light, 

Lose, 

Make, 

Mean, 

Meet, 

Mow, 

Pay, 

Put, 

Quit, 

Read, 

Reave, 

Rend, 

Rid, 

Ride, 

Ring, 

Rise, 

Rive, 

Run, 

Saw, 

Say, 

See, 

Seek, 

Seethe, 

Sell, 

Send, 

Set, 

Shake, 

Shave, 

Shear, 

Shed, 

Shine, 

Shoe, 

Show, 

Shoot, 

Shut, 

Shred, 

Shrink, 

Sing, 

Sink, 

Sit, 

Slay, 

Sleep, 

Slide, 

filing, 





ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 




Preterit. 




Imp. Participle. Perf. Participle. 


lent, 




lending, 


lent. 


let, 




letting, 


let 


la y> 




lying, 


lain. 


lighted or 


lit, 


lighting, 


lighted or lit. 


lost, 




losing, 


lost. 


made, 




making, 


made. 


meant, R. 




meaning, 


meant, R. 


met, 




meeting, 


met. 


mowed, 




mowing, 


mowed or mown. 


paid, 




paying, 


paid. 


put, 




putting, 


put. 


quitted or 


quit, 


quitting, 


quitted or quit 


read, 




reading, 


read. 


reft, R. 




reaving, 


reft, R. 


rent, 




rending, 


rent 


rid, 




ridding, 


rid. 


rode, 




riding, 


ridden*0r rode. 


rung or rang, 


ringing, 


rung. 


rose, 




rising, 


risen. 


rived, 




riving, 


riven or rived. 


ran, 




running, 


run. 


sawed, 




sawing, 


sawed or sawn. 


said, 




saying, 


said. 


saw, 




seeing, 


seen. 


sought. 




seeking, 


sought. 


seethed or 


sod, 


seething, 


seethed or sodden. 


sold, 




selling, 


sold. 


sent, 




sending, 


sent. 


set, 




setting, 


set. 


shook, 




shaking, 


shaken. 


shaved, 




shaving, 


shaved or shaven. 


sheared, 




shearing, 


sheared or shorn, 


shed, 




shedding, 


shed. 


shone, R. 




shining, 


shone, R. 


shod, 




shoeing, 


shod. 


showed, 




showing, 


shown, R. 


shot, 




shooting, 


shot. 


shut, 




shutting, 


shut. 


shred, 




shredding, 


shred. 


shrunk, 




shrinking, 


shrunk. 


sung or sang, 
sunk or sank, 


singing, 


sung. 


sinking, 


sunk. 


sat, 




sitting, 


sat. 


slew, 




slaying, 


slain. 


slept,- 




sleeping, 


slept 


slid, 




sliding, 


slidden or slid. 


slung, 




slinging, 


slung 





ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. 


79 


Present. 


Preterit. Imp. Participle 


Perf Participle. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slinking, 


slunk. 


Slit, 


slit, R. 


slitting, 


slit, R. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smiting, 


smitten or smit. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sowing, 


sowed or sown. 


Speak, 


spoke, 


speaking, 


spoken. 


Speed, 


sped, 


speeding, 


sped. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spending, 


spent. 


Spill, 


spilt, R. 


spilling, 


spilt, R. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spinning, 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit or spat, 


spitting, 


spit. 


Split, 


split, 


splitting, 


split. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spreading, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprung or sprang, 


springing, 


sprung 


Stand, 


stood, 


standing, 


stood. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stealing, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


sticking, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stinging, 


stung. 


Stride, 


strode or strid, 


striding, 


stridden. 


Strike, 


struck, 


striking, 


struck. 


String, 


strung, R. 


stringing, 


strung, R. 


Strive, 


strove, R. 


striving, 


striven, R. 


Strow, 


strowed, 


strowing, 


strowed or strown. 


Swear, 


swore, 


swearing, 


sworn. 


Sweat, 


sweated or swet, 


sweating, 


sweated or swet. 


Sweep, 


swept, 


sweeping, 


swept. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swelling, 


swelled or swollen, 


Swim, 


swum or swam, 


swimming, 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swinging, 


swung. 


Take, 


took, 


taking, 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught, 


teaching, 


taught. 


Tear, 


tore, 


tearing, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


telling, 


told. 


Think, 


thought, 


thinking, 


thought. 


Thrive, 


thrived or throve, 


thriving, 


thrived or thriven. 


Throw, 


threw, R. 


throwing, 


thrown, R. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrusting, 


thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 


treading, 


trodden or trod. 


Wake, 


waked or woke, 


waking, 


waked. 


Wear, 


wore, 


wearing, 


worn. 


Weave, 


wove, R. 


weaving, 


woven, R. 


Weep, 

TTT* 


wept, R. 


weeping, 


wept, R. 


Win, 


won, 


winning, 


won. 


Wind, 


wound, R. 


winding, 


wound. 


Wont, 


wont, R. 


wonting, 


wont, R. 


Work, 


worked or wrought, 


working, 


work'd or wrought, 


Wring, 


wrung, R, 


wringing, 


wrung. 


Write, 


wrote, 


writing, 


written* 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs. — In the preceding list, those preterits and participles which are pre- 
ferable, and best supported by authorities, are placed first. All compounds 
that follow the form of their simple verbs, are here omitted. Some words 
which are obsolete, have also been omitted, that the learner might not mis- 
take them for words in present use. Some of those which are placed last, 
are now little used. 

DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

A defective verb is a verb which wants some of the prin- 
cipal parts. When any of the principal parts are wanting, 
the tenses usually derived from those parts are also wanting. 

All the auxiliaries, except do, be, and have, are defective. The 
following is a list of the defective verbs : 

Imp. Part. Perf. Part. 



Present. 


Preterit. 


Beware, 





Can, 


could, 


May, 


might, 


Must, 


must, 


Ought, 


ought, 


Shall, 


should, 


Will, 


would, 


Gluoth, 


quoth, 



Obs. 1. — Beware is not used in the indicative present. Must is never 
varied in termination. Ought is invariable, except in the solemn style, 
where we find oughtest. Will is sometimes used as a principal verb, and ' 
as such is regular and complete. Quoth is used only in ludicrous lan- 
guage, and is not varied. It seems to be properly the third person singu- 
lar of the present ; for it ends in th, and quad was formerly used as the pre- 
terit: as, 

"Yea, so sayst thou, {quod Troylus,) alas!" — Chaucer. 

Obs. 2. — Some verbs from the nature of the subject to which they refer, 
can be used only in the third person singular; as, It rains; it snows; it 
freezes; it hails; it lightens; it thunders. These have been called imper- 
sonal verbs. The neuter pronoun it, which is always used before them, does 
not seem to represent any noun, but, in connexion with the verb, merely to 
express a state of things. 



OF THE PARTICIPLE. 

A Participle is a word derived from a verb, participating 
the properties of a verb and an adjective ; and is generally 
formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb : thus, from the 
verb rule, are formed three participles, two simple and one 
compound ; as, 1. ruling, 2. ruled, 3. having ruled. 

Obs. 1. — Almost all verbs and participles seem to have their very 
essence in motion or the privation of motion. And to all motion and rest, 
time and place are necessary concomitants ; nor are the ideas of degree 
and manner often irrelevant. Hence the use of tenses and of adverbs 



ETYMOLOGY. PARTICIPLES. 8 1 

For whatsoever comes to pass, must come to pass sometime and somewhere ; 
and, in every event, something must be affected somewhat and somehow. 
Hence it is evident that those grammarians are right, who say that all par- 
ticiples imply time. But it does not follow that the English participles 
divide time, like the tenses of a verb, and specify the period of action; 
on the contrary, it is certain and manifest that they do not. The phrase, 
11 men labouring" conveys no other idea than that of labourers at work; 
it no more suggests the time, than the place, degree, or manner of their 
work. All these circumstances require other words to express them; as, 
11 Men now here awkwardly labouring much to little purpose." 

Obs. 2. — Participles retain the essential meaning of their verbs : and, like 
verbs, are either active-transitive, active-intransitive, passive, or neuter, in 
their signification. For this reason, many have classed them with the verbs. 
But their formal meaning is obviously different. They convey no affirma- 
tion, but usually relate to nouns or pronouns, like adjectives, except when 
they are joined with auxiliaries to form the compound tenses. Hence some 
have injudiciously ranked them with the adjectives. We have assigned 
them a separate place among the parts of speech, because experience has 
shown that it is expedient to do so. 

Obs. 3. — The English participles are all derived from the root of their 
respective verbs, and do not (like those of some other languages) take their 
names from the tenses. They are reckoned among the principal parts in 
the conjugation of their verbs, and many of the tenses are formed from 
them. In the compound forms of conjugation, they are found alike in all 
the tenses. They do not therefore, of themselves, express any particular 
lime; but they denote the state of the being, action, or passion, in regard to 
its progress or completion. [See remarks on the Participles , in the Port- 
Royal Latin and Greek Grammars.] 

CLASSES. 

English verbs have severally three participles ; which 
have been very variously denominated, perhaps the most 
accurately thus : the Imperfect, the Perfect, and the Plu- 
perfect. Or, as their order is undisputed, they may be con- 
veniently called the First, the Second, and the Third. 

^ I. The imperfect participle is that which implies a con- 
tinuance of \he being, action, or passion; as, being, loving, 
seeing, writing — being loved, being seen, being writing. 

II. The perfect 'participle is that which implies a com- 
pletion of the being, action, or passion ; as ; been, loved, 
seen, written. 

III. The pluperfect participle is that which implies a 
previous completion of the being, action, or passion ; as, 
having loved, having, seen, having written — having 
been loved, having been toriting, having been written. 

The First or Imperfect Participle, when simple, is al- 
ways formed by adding ing to the radical verb ; as, look, 
looking : when compound, it is formed by prefixing being 
to some other simple participle ; as, being reading, being 
read. 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The Second or Perfect Participle is always simple, and 
is regularly formed by adding d or ed to the radical verb : 
those verbs from which it is formed otherwise, are inserted 
in the list as being irregular. 

The Third or Pluperfect Participle is always com- 
pound, and is formed by prefixing having to the perfect, 
when the compound is double, and having been to the per- 
fect or the imperfect, when the compound is triple : as, hav- 
ing spoken, having been spoken, having been speaking. 

Obs. 1. — Some have supposed that both the simple participles denote 
present time; some have supposed that the one denotes present and the 
other past time ; some have supposed that neither has any regard to time ; 
and some have supposed that both are of all times. In regard to the man- 
ner of their signification, some have supposed the one to be active and the 
other to be passive ; some have supposed the participle in ing to be active 
or neuter, and the other active or passive ; and some have supposed that 
either of them may be active, passive, or neuter. Nor is there any more 
unanimity among grammarians, in respect to the compounds. Hence 
several different names have been loosely given to each of the participles ; 
and sometimes with manifest impropriety ; as when Buchanan, in his con- 
jugations, calls being Active — and been, having been, and having had, Pas- 
sive. The First participle has been called the Present, the Imperfect, the 
Active, the Present active, the Present passive, the Present neuter; the 
Second has been called the Perfect, the Past, the Passive, the Perfect active, 
the Perfect passive, the Perfect neuter ; and the Third has been called 
the Compound, the Compound active, the Compound passive, the Com- 
pound perfect, the Pluperfect. But the application of a name is of little 
consequence, so that the thing itself be rightly understood by the learner. 
Grammar should be taught in a style at once neat and plain, clear and 
brief. Upon the choice of his terms the writer has bestowed much reflec- 
tion ; yet he finds it impossible either to please everybody, or to explain all 
the reasons for preference. 

Obs. 2. — The participle in ing represents the action or state as continu- 
ing and ever incomplete ; it is therefore rightly termed the imperfect par- 
ticiple : whereas the participle in ed always has reference to the action as 
done and complete ; and is by proper contradistinction called the perfect 
participle. It is hardly necessary to add, that the terms perfect and imper- 
fect, as thus applied to the English participles, have no reference to time, or 
to those tenses of the verb which are usually (but not very accurately) 
named by these epithets. The terms present and past do denote tvme, and 
are in a kind of oblique contradistinction ; but how well they apply to the 
participles may be seen by the following texts : " God was in Christ, recon- 
ciling the world unto himself." — " We pray you in Christ's stead, be ye rec- 
onciled to God." — St. Paul. 

Obs. 3. — The participle in ing has, by. many, been called the present 
participle. But it is as applicable to past or future, as to present time; 
otherwise such expressions as, "I had been writing," — " I shall be 
writing," would be solecisms. It has also been called the active participle. 
But it is not always active, even when derived from an active verb: 
for such expressions as, " The goods are selling" — " The ships are 
now building," are in use, and not without authority. The distin- 
guishing characteristic of this participle is, that it denotes an unfinished 
and progressive state of the being, action, or passion; it is therefore 
properly denominated the imperfect participle. If the term were applied 



ETYMOLOGY. PARTICIPLES. 83 

with reference to time, it would be no more objectionable than the word 
present, and would be equally supported by the usage of the Greek linguists. 
This name is approved by Murray* and adopted by several of the more 
recent grammarians. [See the works of Dr. Crombie, J. Grant, T. O. 
Churchill, and G. Lewis, published in London.] 

Obs. 4. — The participle in ed, as is mentioned above, denotes a comple- 
tion of the being, action, or passion, and should therefore be denomi- 
nated the perfect participle. But this completion may be spoken of as 
present, past, or future, for the participle itself has no tenses, and makes 
no distinction of time, nor should the name be supposed to refer to the 
perfect tense. The perfect participle of transitive verbs, being used in 
the formation of passive verbs, is sometimes called the passive participle. 
It has a passive signification, except when it is used in forming the com- 
pound tenses of the active verb. Hence the difference between the sen- 
tences, "I have written a letter;" and "I have a letter written;" — the 
former being equivalent to Scripsi liter as, and the latter to Sunt mihi liter cc 
scripts. 

Obs. 5. — The third participle has most generally been called the com- 
pound or the compound perfect. The latter of these terms seems to be 
rather objectionable on account of its length; and against the former it 
may be urged that, in the compound forms of conjugation, the first or 
imperfect participle is a compound. Dr. Adam calls having loved the 
perfect participle active, which he says must be rendered in Latin by the 
pluperfect of the subjunctive, " as, he having loved, quum amavisset;" but 
it is manifest that the perfect participle of the verb to love, whether active 
or passive, is the simple word loved, and not this compound. Many writers 
erroneously represent the participle in ing as always active, and the partici- 
ple in ed as always passive ; and some, among whom is Buchanan, making 
no distinction between the simple perfect loved and the compound having 
loved, place the latter with the. former, and call it passive also. But if 
this participle is to be named with reference to its meaning, there is perhaps 
no better term for it than the epithet Pluperfect, which several gramma- 
rians have applied to this use. Not because this compound is really of 
the pluperfect tense, but because it always denotes being, action, or pas- 
sion, that is, or was, or will be, completed before the doing or being of 
something else ; and, of course, when the latter thing is represented as 
past, the participle must correspond to the pluperfect tense of its verb; 
as, " Having explained her views, it was necessary she should expatiate on 
' the vanity and futility of the enjoyments promised by Pleasure." — Jamie- 
son's Rhet. p. 181. Here having explained is equivalent to when she had 
explained. 

Obs. 6. — Participles often become adjectives, and are construed before 
nouns to denote quality. Words of a participial form, may be regarded 
as adjectives-: 1. When they reject the idea of time, and denote some- 
thing customary or habitual, rather than a transient act or state ; as, A 
lying rogue, i. e. one addicted to lying. 2. When they admit adverbs of 
comparison; as, A more learned man. 3. When they are compounded 
with something that does not belong to the verb; as, unfeeling, unfelt 

* " The most unexceptionable distinction which grammarians make between 
the participles, is. that the one points to the continuation of the action, pas- 
sion, or state denoted by the verb ; and the other, to the completion of it. Thus, 
the present participle signifies imperfect action, or action began and not end- 
ed : as, ' I am writing a letter.' The past participle signifies action perfected, 
or finished: 'I have written a letter.' — 'The letter is written.' " — Murray 9 * 
Grammar, 8vo. p. 65. " The first [participle] expresses a continuation ; the 
other, a completion,' 1 — Allen's Gram. 12rao. London, 1813. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Adjectives are generally placed before their nouns; parti roles, after 
them. 

Obs. 7. — Participles in ing often become nouns. When preceded by 
an article, an adjective, or a noun or pronoun of the possessive case, they 
are construed as nouns, and ought to have no regimen. A participle 
immediately preceded by a preposition, is not converted into a noun, and 
therefore retains its regimen; as, "I thank you for helping himP Partici- 
ples in this construction correspond with the Latin gerund, and are some- 
times called gerundives. 

Obs. 8. — To distinguish the participle from the participial noun, the 
learner should observe the following four things : 1 . Nouns take articles 
and adjectives before them; participles do not. 2. Nouns may govern the 
possessive case, but not the objective; participles may govern the objective 
case, but not the possessive. 3. Nouns may be the subjects or objects of 
verbs ; participles cannot. 4. Participial nouns express actions as things ; 
participles refer actions to their agents or recipients. 

Obs. 9. — To distinguish the perfect participle from the preterit of the same 
form, observe the sense, and see which of the auxiliary forms will express 
it : thus, loved for being loved, is a participle ; but loved for did lote^ is a 
preterit verb. 



EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

CHAPTER V.— ETYMOLOGICAL. 

In t/ie Fifth Chapter, it is required of the pupil — to distinguish 
and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modi- 
fications of the articles, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, and 
participles. 

Thz definitions to be given in the Fifth Chapter, are two for 
'in article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a 
pronoun, seven for a verb, two for a participle — and one for 
an adverb, a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection 
Thus : 

EXAMPLE PARSED. 



" Piety has the purest delight attending it." 
iety is a common noun, of the third person, sing! 



Piety is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter 
gender, and nominative case. 

1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be 

known or mentioned. 

2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of things. 

3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely 

spoken of. 

4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 

5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither 

male nor female. 

6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, 

which denotes the subject of a verb. 
Has is an irregular active-transitive verb, from have, liad, having, had; 
found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and 
singular number. 
1. A verb is a word that signifies to be } to act, or to be acted upon. 



ETYMOLOGY. PARSING. 85 

2. Ail irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the 

perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 

3. An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has 

some person or thing for its object. 

4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb which simply indicates 

or declares a thing, or asks a question. 

5. The present tense is that which expresses what now exists or is 

taking place. 

6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely 

spoken of. 

7. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 

The is the definite article. 

1. An article is a word placed before nouns, to limit their significa- 

tion. 

2. The definite article is the, which denotes some particular thing or 

things. 

Purest is a common adjective, of the superlative degree ; compared, pure, 
purer, purest. 

1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally 

expresses quality. 

2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting 

quality or situation. 

3. The superlative degree is that which is not exceeded. 

Delight is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter 
gender, and objective case. 

1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be 

known or mentioned. 

2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of things. 

3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely 

spoken of. 

4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 

5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither 

male nor female. 

6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which 

denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. 

Attending is an imperfect participle, from the regular active-transitive verb, 
attend, attended, attending, attended. 

1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the proper- 

ties of a verb, and an adjective ; and is generally formed by adding 
in g, d, or ed, to the verb. 

2. The imperfect participle is that which implies a continuance of the 

being, action, or passion. 

It is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gen- 
der, and objective case. 

1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 

2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what 

person it is. 

3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely 

spoken of. 

4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 

5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither 

male nor female. 

6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which 

denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. 
8 



85 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON L 

I repent. Thou studiest. He returns. She mourns. It 
seems. We rejoice. You appear. They approach. 

I suppose. Thou thinkst. He sits. She comes. It rains. 
We stand. You are known. They are deceived. 

I was slighted. Thou durst not speak. He left the com- 
pany. She seemed afraid. We knew the man. You were 
not there. They held him fast. 

LESSON II. 

I have been sick. Thou hast been taught. He had not 
found them. She will not go. We shall be preserved. You 
will not meet him. They will have been sold. 

I saw the whole transaction : both parties disgraced them- 
selves. They had a fierce dispute. 

Their friends have been informed of all that has occurred, 
and have promised to repair the damage. 

If the pupil has genius, application to study will improve and 
adorn it. 

A soul inspired with the love of truth, will summon all its 
powers to the pursuit of it. 

LESSON III. 

I shall consider it a particular favour, if you will send me 
the goods which were selected. 

Think on me, when it shall be well with thee. — Bible. 

It deserves our best skill to inquire into those rules by w T hich 
we may guide our judgment. — Murray. 

If we do not exercise our faculties, they will become im- 
paired. — Allen. 

When thou hast received a favour, remember it ; when thou 
hast granted one, forget it. 

If we have sauntered away our youth, we must expect to be 
ignorant men. — Blair. 

LESSON IV. 

Avarice and cunning may acquire an estate ; but they can- 
not gain friends, — Murray. 

They had acquired such a love for learning, that no allure- 
ments to indulgence could withdraw them from the pleasure 
of improving their minds. — Allen. 

It may have escaped his notice ; but such was the fact. 

He must indeed have been a very extraordinary man, if he 
had never felt any sentiment of this kind rising in his breast. 

By carrying some praiseworthy dispositions to excess, he 
bordered sometimes on what was culpable, and was often be- 
trayed into actions that exposed him to censure. — Rohertsm. 



ETYMOLOGY. ADVERBS. 87 

The Scriptures are an authoritative voice, reproving, instruct- 
ing, and warning the world ; and declaring the only means or- 
dained and provided for escaping the penalties of sin. 

LESSON V. 

Having discovered this transaction, he suspected their design ] 
and, by withdrawing privately, eluded their craftiness. 

A spirit less vigorous than Luther's, would have shrunk from 
the dangers which he braved and surmounted. — Robertson. 

His natural intrepidity did not forsake him at the approach 
of death. — Id. 

Afflictions do not attack the good man by surprise, and there- 
fore do not overwhelm him, — Blair. 

Trained by divine grace to enjoy with moderation the ad- 
vantages of the world, neither lifted up by success, nor enerva- 
ted by sensuality, he meets the changes of his lot without un- 
manly dejection. — Id. 

LESSON VI. 

Who covered the earth with such a pleasing variety of fruits 
and flowers ? Who gave them their delightful fragrance, and 
painted them with such exquisite colours ? Who causes the 
same water to whiten in the lily, that blushes in the rose ? Do 
not these things indicate a cause infinitely superior to any finite 
being ? — Maxcy. 

Acquaint thyself with God, if thou wouldst taste 

His works. Admitted once to his embrace, 

Thou shalt perceive, that thou wast blind before : 

Thine eye shall be instructed ; and thine heart, 

Made pure, shall relish with divine delight, 

Till then unfelt, what hands divine have wrought. — Cotojper. 



OF THE ADVERB. 

An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an 
adjective, or an other adverb ; and generally expresses 
time, place, degree, or manner : as, They are now here^ 
studying very diligently. 

Obs. 1. — Adverbs briefly express what would otherwise require several 
words ; as, AW, for at this time — Here, for in this place — Very, for in a higk 
degree — Diligently, for in an industrious manner. 

Obs. 2. — There are several customary combinations of short words which 
are used adverbially, and which some grammarians do not analyze in pars- 
ing , as, Not a* all, at length, in vain. But all words that convey distinct 
ideas, should be taken separately. 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CLASSES. 

Adverbs may be reduced to four general classes : name- 
ly, adverbs of time, of place, of degree, and of manner. 

I. Adverbs of time are those which answer to the ques- 
tion when ? or how often ? 

Obs. — Adverbs of time may be subdivided as follows : 

1. Of time present; as, Now, yet, to-day, presently, instantly, imme- 
diately. 

2. Of time past ; as, Already, yesterday, lately, recently, anciently, hereto- 
fore, hitherto, since, ago, erewhile. 

3. Of time to come ; as, To-morrow, hereafter, henceforth, by-and-by, soon, 
erelong. 

4. Of time relative ; as, When, then, before, after, while or whilst, till, un- 
til, seasonably, betimes, early, late. 

5. Of time absolute ; as, Always, ever, never, aye, eternally, 'perpetually, 
continually. 

6. Of time repeated ; as, Often, oft, again, occasionally, frequently, some- 
times, seldom, rarely, now-and-then, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, once, twice, 
thrice, or threetimes, &c. 

7. Of the order of time; as, First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, &c. 

II. Adverbs of place are those which answer to the 
question where ? whither ? or whence ? 

Obs. — Adverbs of place may be subdivided as follows : 

1. Of place in which; as, Where, here, there, yonder, above, below, about, 
around, somewhere, anywhere, elsewhere, everywhere, nowhere, wherever, with- 
in, without, whereabout, hereabout, thereabout. 

2. Of place to which ; as, Whither, hither, thither, in, up, down, back, 
forth, inwards, upwards, downwards, backwards, forwards. 

3. Of place from which ; as, Whence, hence, thence, away, out. 

4. Of the order of place; as, First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, &c. 

III. Adverbs of degree are those which answer to the 
question how much ? 

Obs. — Adverbs of degree may be subdivided as follows : 

1. Of excess or abundance; as, Much, too, very, greatly, far, besides ; 
chiefly, principally, mainly, generally ; entirely, full, fully, completely, 
perfectly, wholly, totally, altogether, all, quite, clear, stark ; exceedingly, 
excessively, extravagantly, intrUrably ; immeasurably, inconceivably, in- 
finitely. 

2. Of equality ; as, Enough, sufficiently, equally, so, as, even. 

3. Of deficiency or abatement ; as, Ldttle, scarcely, hardly, merely, barely, 
only, but, partly, partially, nearly, almost. 

4. Of quantity ; as, How, (meaning, in what degree,) however, howsoever, 
■tverso, something, nothing, anything, and other nouns of quantity used ad- 
verbially. 

IV. Adverbs of manner are those which answer to the 
question how ? or show how a subject is regarded. 

Obs. — Adverbs of manner may be subdivided as follows : 
1. Of quality; as, Well, ill, wisely, foolishly, justly, quickly, and many 
others formed by adding ly to the adjectives of quality. 



ETYMOLOGY. CONJUNCTIONS. 89 

2. Of affirmation ; as, Yes, yea, ay, verily, truly, indeed, surely, certainly^ 
doubtless, undoubtedly, ccrtes, forsooth, amen. 

3. Of negation; as, No, nay, not, nowise. 

4. Of doubt ; as, Perhaps, haply, possibly, perchance, peradventure y 
may -be. 

5. Of mode ; as, Thus, so, how, somehoio, however, howsoever, like, else, 
otherwise, across, together, apart, asunder, namely, particularly, necessa* 
rily. 

6. Of cause j as, Why, wherefore, therefore. 

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 

Adverbs sometimes perform the office of conjunctions, and 
serve to connect sentences, as well as to express some circum- 
stance of time, place, degree, or manner : adverbs that are so 
used, are called conjunctive adverbs. 

Obs. 1. — Conjunctive adverbs often relate equally to two verbs in differ- 
ent clauses, on which account it is the more necessary to distinguish them 
from others ; as, " They feared when they heard that they were Romans." — 
Acts, xvi. 38. 

Obs. 2. — The following words are the most frequently used as conjunc- 
tive adverbs : after, again, also, as, before, besides, else, even, hence, however, 
moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, since, so, then, tlience, therefore, till, until, 
when, where, wherefore, while or whilst. 

Obs. 3. — Adverbs of time, place, and manner, are generally connected with 
verbs or participles ; those of degree are more frequently prefixed to adjec- 
tives or adverbs. 

Obs. 4. — The adverbs here, there, and where, when prefixed to prepositions, 
have the force of pronouns: as, Hereby, for by this; thereby, for by that; 
whereby, for by ichich. Compounds of this kind are, however, commonly 
reckoned adverbs. They are now somewhat anticjHiated. 

Obs. 5. — The adverbs how, when, whence, where, whither, why, and where- 
fore, are frequently used as interrogates ; but, as such, they severally be- 
long to the classes under which they are placed. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Adverbs have no modifications, except that a few are 
compared after the manner of adjectives ; as, Soon, sooner, 
soonest — often, oftener, oftenest — long, longer, longest. 

The following are irregularly compared : well, better, best ; 
badly or ill, worse, worst ; little, less, least ; much, more, most ; far, 
farther, farthest ; forth, further, furthest. 

Obs. 1. — Most adverbs of quality, will admit the comparative adverbs more 
and most, less and least, before them : as, wisely, more wisely, most wisely ; 
culpably, less culpably, least culpably. But these should be parsed separately ; 
the degree of comparison belongs only to the adverb prefixed. 

Obs. 2. — As comparison does not belong to adverbs in general, it should 
not be mentioned in parsing, except in the case of those few which are va- 
ried by it. ■ 



OF THE CONJUNCTION. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or sen- 

8* 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tences in construction, and to show the dependence of the 
terms so connected : as, Thou and he are happy, because 
you are good. 

CLASSES. 

Conjunctions are divided into two classes ; copulative 
and disjunctive. 

I. A copulative conjunction is a conjunction that de- 
notes an addition, a cause, or a supposition : as, He and I 
shall not dispute ; for, if he has any choice, I shall readily 
grant it. 

II. A disjunctive conjunction is a conjunction that de- 
notes opposition of meaning : as, " Be not overcome [by] 
evil, but overcome evil with good." — Bom. xii. 21. 

LIST OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. 

The following are the principal conjunctions : 

1. Copulative ; and, as, both, because, for, if, that. 

2. Disjunctive ; or, nor, either, neither, than, though, although, 
yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless, save, notwithstanding. 



OF THE PREPOSITION. 

A Preposition is a word used to express some relation 
of different things or thoughts to each other, and is gener- 
ally placed before a noun or a pronoun : as, The paper 
lies before me on the desk. 

Obs. — Every relation of course implies more than one subject. In all cor- 
rect language, the grammatical relation of the words corresponds exactly to 
the relation of the things or ideas expressed ; for the relation of words, is 
their dependence on each other according to the sense. To a preposition, the 
antecedent term of relation may be a noun, an adjective, a pronoun, a verb, 
a participle, or an adverb ; and the subsequent term may be a noun; a pro- 
noun, an infinitive verb, or a participle. The learner must observe that the 
terms of relation are frequently transposed. 

LIST OF THE PREPOSITIONS. 

The following are the principal prepositions, arranged alpha- 
betically : Above, about, aboard, across, after, against, along, amid 
or amidst, among or amongst, around, at, athwart — Before, behind, 
below-, beneath, beside or besides, between or betwixt, beyond, by — 
Concerning — Down, during — Except, excepting — For, from — In, 
into — Notwithstanding — Of, off, on, out-of over, overthwart — 
Past — Round — Since — Through, throughout, till, to, touching, 
toward or towards — Under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon — 
With, within, ivithout. 



ETYMOLOGY. PARSING. 91 

Obs. — The words in the preceding list are generally prepositions. But 
when any of them are employed without a subsequent term of relation, they 
are adverbs. For, when it signifies because, is a conjunction : without, when 
used for unless, and notwithstanding, when placed before a nominative, ara 
referred to the same class. 



OF THE INTERJECTION. 

An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indi- 
cate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind : as, Oh ! 
alas I 

Obs. — Of pure interjections but few are admitted into books. As words 
or sounds of this kind serve rather to indicate feeling than to express 
thought, they seldom have any definable signification. Their use also is 
so variable, that there can be no very accurate classification of them. 
Some significant words properly belonging to other classes, are ranked 
with interjections, when uttered with emotion and in an unconnected 
manner. 

LIST OF THE INTERJECTIONS. 

The following are the principal interjections, arranged ac- 
cording to the emotions which they are generally intended to 
indicate: — 1. Of joy; eigh ! hey! io ! — 2. Of sorrow; oh! ah! 
alas! alack! welladay ! — 3. Of wonder ; heigh! ha! strange! — 
4. Of wishing or earnestness ; (often with a noun or pronoun 
in a direct address;) O! — 5. Of pain; oh! ah! eh! — 6. Of 
contempt ; fudge ! pugh ! poh ! pshaw ! pish ! tush ! tut ! — 
7. Of aversion ; foh ! fie ! off! begone ! avaui\t ! — 8. Of calling 
aloud ; ho ! soho ! holla ! — 9. Of exultation ; aha I huzza ! hey- 
day! hurrah! — 10. Of laughter^ ha, ha, ha. — 11. Of saluta- 
tion; welcome! hail! all-hail! — 12. Of calling to attention ; lo! 
behold! look! see! hark! — 13. Of calling to silence; hush! 
hist! mum! — 14. Of surprise; oh! ha! hah! what! — 15. Of 
languor; heigh-ho! — 16. Of stopping; avast! whoh'! 

Obs. — Besides these, there are several others, too often heard, which are 
unworthy to be considered as parts of a cultivated language. The frequent 
use of interjections, savours more of thoughtlessness than of sensibility. 



EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

CHAPTER VI.— ETYMOLOGICAL. 

In the Sixth Chapter, it is required of the pupil — to distinguish 
and define the different parts of speech, and all their classes and 
modifications. 

The definitions to be given in the Sixth Chapter, are two for 
an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a 
pronoun, seven for a verb, two for a participle, two (and 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sometimes three) for an adverb, two for a conjunction, one for a 
preposition, and two for an interjection. Thus: 

EXAMPLE PARSED. 

" O ! sooner shall the earth and stars fall into chaos !" 

O! is an interjection, indicating earnestness. 

1. An interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some 

strong or sudden emotion of the mind. 

2. The interjection of wishing or earnestness, is O. 

Sooner is an adverb of time, of the comparative degree; compared, soon } 
sooner, soonest. 

1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or 

an other adverb ; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or 
manner. 

2. Adverbs of time are those which answer to the question when ? or 

how often ? 

3. The comparative degree is that which exceeds the positive. 
Shall is an auxiliary to fall. 

An auxiliary is a short verb prefixed to one of the principal parts 
of an other verb, to express some particular mode and time of the 
being, action, or passion. 
The is the definite article. 

1. An article is a word placed before nouns, to limit their significa- 

tion. 

2. The definite article is the, which denotes some particular thing or 

things. 

Earth is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gen- 
der, and nominative case. 

1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known 

or mentioned. 

2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of things. 

3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely 

spoken of. 

4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 

5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male 

nor female. 

6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which 

denotes the subject of a verb. 
And is a copulative conjunction. 

1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in 

construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so con- 
nected. 

2. A copulative conjunction is a conjunction that denotes an addition, 

a cause, or a supposition. 
Stars is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter gender, 
and nominative case. 

1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known 

or mentioned. 

2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of things. 

3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely 

spoken of. 

4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 

5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male 

nor female. 



ETYMOLOGY. PARSING. 93 

6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, 
which denotes the subject of a verb. 
Shall fall is an irregular active-intransitive verb, from fall, fell, falling, 
fallen; found in the indicative mood, first-future tense, third per- 
son, and plural number. 

1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon, 

2. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the 

perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 

3. An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which 

has no person or thing for its object. 

4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indi- 

cates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 
5 The first-future tense is that which expresses what will take place 
hereafter. 

6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely 

spoken of. 

7. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 
Into is a preposition. 

1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different 
things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a 
noun or a pronoun. 
Qiaos is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gen- 
der, and objective case. 

1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be 

known or mentioned. 

2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of things. 

3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely 

spoken of. 

4. The singular number is that which denotes but one 

5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither 

male nor female. 

6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which 

denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition. 

LESSON I. 

There is nothing which more engages the affections of men, 
than a handsome address and graceful conversation. 

It is a sign of great prudence, to be willing to receive in- 
struction ; the most intelligent persons sometimes stand in need 
of it. 

Good-nature in a companion is more agreeable than wit ; 
and gives a certain air to the countenance, which is more amia- 
ble than beauty. 

Men of the noblest dispositions, think themselves happiest, 
when others share with them in their happiness. 

Then near approaching, f Father, hail P he cried ; 

And, < Hail, my son !' the reverend sire replied. — Parnel 

LESSON II. 

Ingratitude is a crime so shameful, that no one has ever yet 
been found, who would acknowledge himself guilty of it. 

True greatness of mind is to be maintained only by Chris- 
tian principles, 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Small transgressions become great by frequent repetition; 
as small expenses, multiplied, insensibly waste a large revenue. 
A talkative fellow applying to Isocrates for instruction, the 
orator asked him double his usual price ; — i Because/ said he, 
* 1 must both teach him to speak, and to hold his tongue.' 
Hark ! the bee winds her small but mellow horn, 
Blithe to salute the sunny smile of morn. — Rogers. 

LESSON III. 

Do not hurt yourselves or others by the pursuit of pleasure. 
Consult your whole nature. Consider yourselves not only as 
sensitive, but as rational beings ; not only as rational, but social j 
not only as social, but immortal. 

For what end has the lavish hand of Providence diffused in- 
numerable objects of delight, but that all might rejoice in the 
privilege of existence, and be filled with gratitude to the benefi- 
cent author of it ? — Carter. 

let not thy heart despise me ! thou whom experience has 
not taught that it is misery to lose that which it is not happi- 
ness to possess. — Dr. Johnson. 

Let never day nor night unhallow'd pass, 

But still remember what the Lord hath done. — Shak. 

LESSON IV. 

Man surely has some latent sense for which this place affords 
no gratification, or he has some desires distinct from sense, 
which must be satisfied before he can be happy. — Dr. Johnson. 

1 have found a man who can teach all that is necessary to 
be known ; who, from the unshaken throne of rational fortitude, 
looks down on the scenes of life changing beneath him. He 
speaks, and attention watches his lips. He reasons, and con- 
viction closes his periods. — Id. 

Ignorance, when it is voluntary, is criminal ; and he may 
properly be charged with evil, who refused to learn how he 
might prevent it. — Id. 

Ha ! at the gates what grisly forms appear ! 

What dismal shrieks of laughter wound the ear ! — Merry. 

LESSON V. 

When we act according to our duty, we commit the event to 
him by whose laws our actions are governed, and who will 
suffer none to be finally punished for obedience. — Dr. Johnson. 

When, in prospect of some good, whether natural or moral, 
we break the rules prescribed us, we withdraw from the direc- 
tion of superior wisdom, and take all consequences upon our- 
selves. — Id. 

Man cannot so far know the connexion of causes and events, 
as that he may venture to do wrong in order to do right. — Id. 



ETYMOLOGY. QUESTIONS. 95 

When we pursue our end by lawful means, we may always 
console our miscarriage by the hope of future recompense. — Id. 
Ah, that deceit should steal such gentle shapes, 
And with a virtuous visor hide deep vice ! — Shak. 

LESSON VI. 

How comfortless is the sorrow of him who feels at once the 
pangs of guilt, and the vexation of calamity which guilt has 
brought upon him ! — Dr. Johnson. 

He who will determine against that which he knows, be- 
cause there may be something which he knows not, is not to 
be admitted among reasonable beings. — Id. 

To live without feeling or exciting sympathy, to be fortunate 
without adding to the felicity of others, or afflicted without 
tasting the balm of pity, is a state more gloomy than solitude ; 
it is not retreat, but exclusion from mankind. — Id. 
O happy peasant ! Oh unhappy bard ! 
His the mere tinsel, hers the rich reward. — Cowper. 

LESSON VII. 

It is the care of a very great part of mankind, to conceal their 
indigence from the rest ; they support themselves by temporary 
expedients, and every day is lost in contriving for the morrow. 
— Dr. Johnson. 

Pride is seldom delicate, it will please itself with very mean 
advantages ; and envy feels not its own happiness, but when it 
may be compared with the misery of others. — Id. 

This same grace is spoken of as the gift of God, as coming 
by Jesus Christ, ^s reigning, as abounding, as operating. — 
Berkley. 

If I were not a preacher, I know of no profession on earth ol 
which I should be fonder than of that of a preceptor. — Luther 
Nothing is proof against the general curse 
Of vanity, that seizes all below. 
The only amaranthine flower on earth 
Is virtue ; the only lasting treasure, truth. — Cowper. 



QUESTIONS ON ETYMOLOGY. 

LESSON I.— PARTS OF SFEECH. 

Of what does Etymology treat ? 
How many and what are the parts of speech 1 
What is an article 1 — Which are the articles 1 
W T hat is a noun ? — W T hat examples are given ? 
W r hat is an adjective? — How is this exemplified'? 
W T hat is a pronoun 1 — How is this exemplified 1 
What is a verb? — How is this exemplified'? 
W r hat is a participle V -How is this exemplified 1 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

What is an adverb ? — How is this exemplified ? 
What is a conjunction ? — How is this exemplified ? 
What is a preposition ? — How is this exemplified ? 
What is an interjection ? — What examples are given ? 

LESSON II. — PARSING. 

What is Parsing ? 

What is a perfect definition? — What is a rule of grammar ? 
What is required of the pupil in the first chapter for parsing 1 
How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech 1 
How is the following example parsed'? "The patient ox submits to the 
yoke, and meekly performs the labour required of him." 
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the First Chapter.] 

LESSON III. — ARTICLES. 

What is an Article ? — Mention the articles. 

Are an and a different articles, or the same ? 

When is an used ? and what are the examples 1 

When is a used ? and what are the examples ? 

What form of the article do the sounds of to and y require ? 

Repeat the alphabet, with an or a before the name of each letter. 

Name the parts of speech, with an or a before each name. 

How are the two articles distinguished in grammar ? 

Which is the definite article, and what does it denote ? 

Which is the indefinite article, and what does it denote ? 

What modifications have the articles ? 

LESSON IV. — NOUNS. 

What is a Noun ? — Can you give some examples ? 

Into what general classes are nouns divided ? 

What is a proper noun 'J — a common noun 7 

What particular classes are included among common nouns 1 

What is a collective noun? — an abstract noun? — a verbal or participial 

noun? 
What modifications have nouns ? 
What are persons in grammar ? 

How many persons are there, and what are they called ? 
What is the first person ? — the second person ? — the third person % 
What are Numbers in grammar? 

How many numbers are there, and what are they called? 
What is the singular number ? — the plural number ? 
How is the plural number of nouns regularly formed ? 
What are the rules for adding s and es to form the plural 1 

LESSON V. — NOUNS. 

What are Genders in grammar ? 

How many genders are there, and what are they called ? 
What is the masculine gender ? — the feminine gender ? the neuter gen- 
der? 
What are Cases in grammar ? 

How many cases are there, and what are they called ? 
What is the nominative case ? 
What is the subject of a verb ? 
What is the possessive case ? 
How is the possessive case of nouns formed ? 
What is the objective case ? 

What is the object of a verb, participle, or preposition? 
What is the declension of a noun ? 
How do you decline the nouns friend i man ) fox i and^y? 



ETYMOLOGY. QUESTIONS. 9? 



LESSON VI. — PARSING. 

What is required of the pupil in the second chapter for parsing ? 

How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech ? 

How 16 the following example parsed ? " James is a lad of uncommon 

talents." 

[Now parse, in like manner, the two lessons of the Second Chapter.] 

LESSON VII. — ADJECTIVES. 

What is an Adjective ? — Hew is this exemplified ? 

Into what classes may adjectives be divided 1 

What is a common adjective'? — a proper adjective? — a numeral, adjective 1 
— a pronominal adjective ? — a participial adjective? — a compound ad- 
jective % 

What modifications have adjectives ? 

What is Comparison in grammar ? 

How many, and what are the degrees of comparison ? 

W T hat is the positive degree? — the comparative degree ? — the superlative de- 
gree? 

What adjectives cannot be compared ? 

What adjectives are compared by means of adverbs? 

How are adjectives regularly compared ? — Compare great, wide, and hot 

To what adjectives are er and est applicable ? 

Is there any other mode of expressing the degrees? 

How are the degrees of diminution expressed ? 

How do you compare good, bad, or ill, little, much, and many? 

How do you compare far, near, fore, hind, in, out, up, low, and late? 

LESSON VIII. — PARSING. 

W T hat is required of the pupil in the third chapter for parsing ? 

How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech ? 

How is the following example parsed ? " I prefer the shortest course, thougb 

some other may be less intricate." 

[Now parse, in like manner, the two lessons of the Third Chapter.] 

LESSON IX. — PRONOUNS. 

What is a Pronoun ? — Give the example. 

How are pronouns divided ? 

What is a personal pronoun ? — Tell the personal pronouns. 

What is a relative pronoun ? — Tell the relative pronouns. 

What peculiarity has the relative what ? 

What is an interrogative pronoun ? — Tell the interrogatives. 

What modifications nave pronouns ? 

What is the declension of a pronoun ? 

How do you decline the pronouns /, thou, he, she, and it ? 

What is said of the compound personal pronouns ? 

How do you decline who, which, what, and that? 

How do you decline the compound relative pronouns ? 

LESSON X. — PARSING. 

What is required of the pupil in the fourth chapter for parsing? 
How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 
How is the following example parsed? " She met them." 
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Fourth Chapter. ,] 

LESSON XL— VERBS. 

What is a Verb ? — What are the examples ? 
How are verbs divided with respect to their form ? 
What is a regular verb ? — an irregular verb ? 
How are verbs divided with respect to their signification 1 

9 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

What is an active-transitive verb ? — an active-intransitive verb ?— a passive 

verb ? — a neuter verb ? 
What modifications have verbs ? 
What are Moods in grammar ? 

How many moods are there, and what are they called ? 
What is the infinitive mood ? — the indicative mood ? — the potential mood ? — - 

the subjunctive mood ? — the imperative mood 1 

LESSON XII. — VERBS. 

What are Tenses in grammar ? 

How many tenses are there, and what are they called ? 

What is the present tense ? — the imperfect tense ? — the perfect tense ? — the 

pluperfect tensed — the first future tense 1 — the second-future tense ? 
What are the Person and Number of a verb ? 
How many persons and numbers belong to verbs ? 
How are the second and third persons singular formed 7 
What is the conjugation of a verb ? 

What are the principal parts in the conjugation of a verb ? 
What is a verb called which wants some of these parts ? 
What is an auxiliary in grammar ? 
What verbs are used as auxiliaries ? 

LESSON XIII. — VERBS. 

What is the simplest form of an English conjugation ? 

What is the first example of conjugation'? 

What are the principal parts of the verb love'? 

How many and what tenses has the infinitive mood ? — the indicative ? — the 
potential ? — the subjunctive ? — the imperative ? 

What is the verb love in the Infinitive, present? — perfect? — Indicative, 
present ? — imperfect ? — perfect ? — pluperfect ? — first-future ? — second-fu- 
ture ? — Potential, present ?— imperfect ? — perfect ? — pluperfect ? — Sub- 
junctive, present ? — imperfect ? — Imperative, present ? Wnat are its par- 
ticiples ? 

LESSON XIV. — VERBS. 

What is the synopsis of the verb love, in the first person singular ? — sec- 
ond person singular? — third person singular ?— first person plural? — 
second person plural ? — third person plural ? 

LESSON XV. — VERBS. 

What is the second example of conjugation ? 
How is the verb see conjugated throughout? 

How do you form a synopsis of the verb see, with the pronoun I? thou ? 
he? we? you? they? 

LESSON XVI. — VERBS. 

What is the third example of conjugation ? 

How is the verb be conjugated throughout ? 

How do you form a synopsis of the verb be, with the nominative I? thou? 

he? we? you? they? the man? the men? 

LESSON XVII. — VERBS. 

How else may active and neuter verbs be conjugated ? 
What peculiar meaning does this form convey ? 
What is the fourth example of conjugation? 
How is the verb read conjugated in the compound form ? 
How do you form a synopsis of the verb be reading, with the nominative I? 
thou? he? we? you? they? the boy? the boys? 

LESSON XVIII. — VERBS. * 

Haw axe passive verbs formed? 



ETYMOLOGY. QUESTIONS. 99 

What is the fifth example of conjugation'? 

How is the passive verb be loved, conjugated throughout % 

How do you form a synopsis of the verb be loved, with the nominative I? 

thou? he? we? you? they? the child? the children? 

LESSON XIX. — VERBS. 

How is a verb conjugated negatively? 

How is the form of negation exemplified % 

How is a verb conjugated interrogatively ? 

How is the form of question exemplified 1 

How is a verb conjugated interrogatively and negatively? 

How is the form of negative question exemplified % 

LESSON XX.. — VERBS. 

What is an irregular verb 1 

How many regular verbs are there 1 — and whence are they derived 1 

How does the list exhibit the. irregular verbs 1 

What are the principal parts of the following verbs : — Abide — Be, bear, 
beat, begin, bend, beseech, bid, bind, bite, bleed, blow, break, breed, 
bring, build, burst, buy — Cast, catch, chide, choose, cleave, cling, clothe, 
come, cost, crow, creep, cut — Dare, deal, dig, do, draw, dream, drive, drink, 
dwell* 

LESSON XXI. — VERBS. 

What are the principal parts of the following verbs : — Eat — Fall, feed, feel, 
fight, find, flee, fling, fly, forsake, freeze — Get, gild, gird, give, go, grave, 
grind, grow — Hang, have, hear, heave, hew, hide, hit, hold, hurt — -Keep, 
kneel, knit, know — Lade, lay, lean, lead, leave, lend, let, lie, light, lose 
— Make, mean, meet, mow — Pay, putl 

LESSON XXII. — rVERBS. 

What are the principal parts of the following verbs : — Q,uit — Read, reave, 
rend, rid, ride, ring, rise, rive, run — Saw, say, see, seek, seethe, sell, send, 
set, shake, shave, shear, shed, shine, shoe, show, shoot, shut, shred, shrink, 
sing, sink, sit, slay, sleep, slide, sling, slink, slit, smite, sow, speak, speed, 
spend, spill, spin, spit, split, spread, spring, stand 1 

LESSON XXIII. — VERBS. 

What are the principal parts of the following verbs : — Steal, stick, sting, stride, 
strike, string, strive, strow, swear, sweat, sweep, swell, swim, swing — 
Take, teach, tear, tell, think, thrive, throw, thrust, tread — Wake, wear, 
weave, weep, win, wind, wont, work, wring, write 1 

What is a defective verb ? — What tenses do such verbs lack 1 

What verbs are defective 1 and wherein are they so'? 

LESSON XXIV. — PARTICIPLES. 

What is a Participle 1 and how is it generally formed 1 
How many kinds of participles are there 1 and what are they called ? 
How is the imperfect participle defined 1 and what are the examples % 
How is the perfect participle defined ^ and what are the examples 1 
How is the pluperfect participle defined 1 and what are the examples 1 
How is the first or imperfect participle formed 1 
How is the second or perfect participle formed * 
How is the third or pluperfect participle formed 1 

What are the participles of the following verbs, according to the simplest 
form of conjugation: Repeat, study, return, mourn, seem, rejoice appear, 
approach, suppose, think, set, come, rain, stand, know, deceive 1 

LESSON XXV. — PARSING. 

What is required of the pupil in the fifth chapter for parsing 1 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 






How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech 1 
How is the following example parsed % " Piety has the purest delight attend- 
ing it?" 
[Now parse, in like manner, the six lessons of the Fifth Chapter.] 

LESSON XXVI. — ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS. 

What is an Adverb 1 — What is the example 1 

To what classes may adverbs be reduced "? 

Which are adverbs of time? — of place? — of degree? — of manner? 

What are conjunctive adverbs 1 

Have adverbs any modifications'? 

Compare well, badly or ill, little, much, far and forth. 

What is a Conjunction 1 — How are conjunctions divided? 

What is a copulative conjunction 1 — a disjunctive conjunction 1 

What are the copulative conjunctions 1 — the disjunctive? 

LESSON XXVII. — PREPOSITIONS AND INTERJECTIONS. 

What is a Preposition 1 — How are the prepositions arranged? 

What are the prepositions beginning with a? — with b? — with c? — with d? 

— with e?— with/?— with %?— with n? — with o ?— with p ?— with r? — 

with 5 ?— with t ? — with u ? — with w ? 
What is an Interjection? — How are the interjections arranged? 
What are the interjections of joy ?• — of sorrow ? — of wonder ? — of wishing 

or earnestness ? — of pain ? — of contempt ? — of aversion ? — of calling aloud? 

— of exultation ? — of laughter ? — of salutation ? — of calling to attention ? — 

of calling to silence ? — of surprise ? — of languor ? — of stopping ? 

LESSON XXVIII. — PARSING. 

What is required of the pupil in the sixth chapter for parsing ? 

How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech ? 

How is the following example parsed ? "O ! sooner shall the earth and stars 

fall into chaos?" 

[Now parse, in like manner, the seven lessons of the Sixth Chapter.'] 

EX^RCI§13§ IS ETYMOIOCT. 

f^T [When the pupil has become familiar with the different parts of 
speech, and their classes and modifications, and has been sufficiently exer- 
cised in etymological parsing, he should write out the following exercises.] 

EXERCISE I.— ARTICLES. 

1. Prefix the definite article to the following nouns : path, 
paths ; loss, losses ; name, names ; page, pages ; want, wants ; 
doubt, doubts ; votary, votaries. 

2. Prefix the indefinite article to the following nouns : age, 
error, idea, omen, urn, arch, bird, cage, dream, empire, farm, 
grain, horse, idol, jay, king, lady, man, novice, opinion, pony, 
quail, raven, sample, trade, uncle, vessel, window, youth, zone, 
whirlwind, union, onion, unit, eagle, house, honour, hour, her- 
ald, habitation, hospital, harper, harpoon, ewer, eye, humour. 

3. Insert the definite article rightly in the following phrases : 
George second — fair appearance — part first — reasons most ob- 
vious — good man — wide eircle-*-man of honour — man of world 
— old books — common people — same person — smaller piece — 
rich and poor — first and last — all time — great excess — nine 



ETYMOLOGY. EXERCISES. 101 

muses — how rich reward — so small number — all ancient wri- 
ters — in nature of things — much better course. 

4. Insert the indefinite article rightly in each of the follow- 
ing phrases : new name — very quick motion — other sheep — 
such power — what instance — great weight — such worthy cause 
— too great difference — high honour — humble station — univer- 
sal law — what strange event — so deep interest — as firm hope 
— so great wit — humorous story — such person — few dollars — 
little reflection. 

EXERCISE II— NOUNS. 

1. Write the plural of the following nouns: town, country, 
case, pin, needle, harp, pen, sex, rush, arch, marsh, monarch, 
blemish, distich, princess, gas, bias, stigma, wo, grotto, folio, 
punctilio, ally, duty, toy, money, entry, valley, volley, half, 
dwarf, strife, knife, roof, muff, staff, chief, sheaf, mouse, penny, 
ox, foot, erratum, axis, thesis, criterion, bolus, rebus, son-in-law, 
pailful, man-servant. 

2. Write the feminines corresponding to the following nouns : 
earl, friar, stag, lord, duke, marquis, hero, executor, nephew, 
heir, actor, enchanter, hunter, pn'nce, traitor, lion, arbiter, tutor, 
songster, abbot, master, uncle, wk lower, son, landgrave. 

3. Write the possessive case singular of the following nouns ; 
table, leaf, boy, torch, park, poich, portico, lynx, calf, sheep ? 
wolf, echo, folly, cavern, father-in-law, court-martial. 

4. Write the possessive case, plural, of the following nouns: 
priest, tutor, scholar, mountain, city, courtier, judge, citizen, 
woman, servant, writer, grandmother. 

5. Write the possessive case, both singular and plural, of the 
following nouns : body, fancy, lady, attorney, negro, nuncio, 
life, brother, deer, child, wife, goose, bsau, envoy, distaff, collo- 
quy, hero, thief, wretch. 

EXERCISE III— ADJEOTJvES. 

1. Annex a suitable noun to each of the fo'Wan^ adjectives, 
without repeating any word : good, great, taP, Wise strong, 
dark, dangerous, dismal, drowsy, twenty, true, difficult, pale, 
livid, ripe, delicious, stormy, rainy, convenient, heavy. Thus — 
good pens, &c. 

2. Prefix a suitable adjective to each of the following nouna, 
without repeating any word : man, son, merchant, work, fence 
fear, poverty, picture, prince, delay, suspense, devices, follies, 
actions. Thus — wise man, &c. 

3. Compare the following adjectives, black, bright, short, 
white, old, high, wet, big, few, lovely, dry, fat, good, bad, little, 
much, many, far. 

4. Express the degrees of the following qualities, by the com- 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

parative adverbs of increase : delightful, comfortable, agreeable, 
pleasant, fortunate, valuable, wretched, vivid, timid, poignant, 
excellent. 

5. Express the degrees of the following qualities by the com- 
parative adverbs of diminution: objectionable, formidable, for- 
cible, comely, pleasing, obvious, censurable, prudent. 

EXERCISE IV.— PRONOUNS. 

1. Write the nominative plural of the following pronouns : 
I, thou, he, she, it, who, which, what, that. 

2. Write the declension of the following pronouns : myself, 
thyself, himself, herself, itself, whosoever. 

3. Write the following words in their customary form : hei^s, 
it's, our's, your's, their's, who's, meself, hisself, theirselves. 

4. Write the objective singular of all the simple pronouns. 

5. Write the objective plural of all the simple pronouns. 

EXERCISE V.— VERBS. 

1. Write the four principal parts of each of the following 
verbs : slip, thrill, caress, force, release, crop, try, die, obey, de- 
lay, destroy, deny, buy, come, do, feed, lie, say, huzza. 

2. Write the following preterits in their appropriate form : 
exprest, stript, learnt, dropt, jumpt, prest, topt, whipt, spoilt, 
propt, fixt, staid, past, crost, stept, distrest, gusht, confest, snapt, 
blest, shipt, kist, discust, lackt. 

3. Write the following verbs in the indicative mood, present 
tense, second person singular : move, strive, please, reach, con- 
fess, fix, deny, survive, know, go, outdo, close, lose, pursue. 

4. Write the following verbs in the indicative mood, present 
tense, third person singular : leave, seem, search, impeach, fear, 
redress, comply, bestow, do, woo, sue, view, allure, rely, beset, 
release, be, bias. 

5. Write the following verbs in the subjunctive mood, pre- 
sent tense, in the three persons singular : serve, shun, turn, 
learn, find, wish, throw, dream, possess, detest, disarm, allow, 
pretend. 

EXERCISE VI— VERBS. 

1 . Write a synopsis of the first person singular of the active 
verb amuse, conjugated affirmatively. 

2. Write a synopsis of the second person singular of the 
neuter verb sit, conjugated affirmatively in the solemn style. 

3. Write a synopsis of the third person singular of the active 
verb speak, conjugated affirmatively in the compound form. 

4. Write a synopsis of the first person plural of the passive 
verb be reduced, conjugated affirmatively. 

5. Write a synopsis of the second person plural of the active 
verb los^ conjugated negatively, 



ETYMOLOGY. EXERCISES. 1 03 

6. Write a S}mopsis of the third person plural of the neuter 
verb stand, conjugated interrogatively. 

7. Write a synopsis of the first person singular of the active 
verb derive, conjugated interrogatively and negatively. 

EXERCISE VII— PARTICIPLES. 

1. Write the simple imperfect participles of the following 
verbs: belong, provoke, degrade, impress, fly, do, survey, vie, 
coo, let, hit, put, defer, differ, remember. 

2. Write the perfect participles of the following verbs : turn, 
burn, learn, deem, crowd, choose, draw, hear, lend, sweep, tear, 
thrust, steal, write, delay, imply, exist. 

3. Write the pluperfect participles of the following verbs : 
depend, dare, deny, value, forsake, bear, set, sit, lay, mix, speak, 
sleep, allot. 

4. Write the following participles in their appropriate form : 
dipt, deckt, markt, equipt, ingulft, embarrast, astonisht, tost, 
embost, absorpt, attackt, gasht, soakt, hackt, blest, curst. 

5. Write the regular participles which are now generally 
preferred to the following irregular ones : clad, graven, hoven, 
hewn, knelt, leant, lit, mown, quit, riven, sawn, sodden, shaven, 
shorn, sown, strown, swollen, thriven, wrought. 

6. Write the irregular participles which are commonly pre- 
ferred to the following regular ones ; bended, builded, catched, 
creeped, dealed, digged, dreamed, dwelled, gilded, girded, hang- 
ed, knitted, laded, meaned, reaved, shined, slitted, splitted, 
stringed, strived, weeped, wonted, wringed. 

EXERCISE VIII.— ADVERBS, &c. 

1. Compare the following adverbs: soon, often, well, badly 
or ill, little, much, far, forth. 

2. Prefix the comparative adverbs of increase to each of the 
following adverbs : purely, fairly, sweetly, earnestly, patiently, 
completely, fortunately, profitably. 

3. Prefix the comparative adverbs of diminution to the fol- 
lowing adverbs* secretly, slily, liberally, favourably, power- 
fully. 

4. Insert suitable conjunctions in place of the following 
dashes : Love— fidelity are inseparable. Beware of parties — 
factions. Do well — boast not. Improve time — it flies. There 
would be few paupers — no time were lost. Be not proud — 
thou art human. I saw — it was necessary. Honesty is better 
— policy. Neither he — I can do it. It must be done — to day 
— to morrow. Take care — thou fall. Though I should boast 
— am I nothing. 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. Insert suitable prepositions in the place of the following 
dashes: Plead — the dumb. Qualify thyself — action — study. 
Think often — the worth — time. Live — peace — all men. Keep 
— compass. Jest not — serious subjects. Take no part — slan- 
der. Guilt starts — its own shadow. Grudge not — giving. 
Go not — sleep — malice. Debate not — temptation. Depend 
not — the stores — others. Contend not — trifles. Many fall- 
grasping — things — their reach. Be deaf — detraction. 

6. Correct the following sentences, and adapt the interjec- 
tions to the emotions expressed by the other words : Aha ! aha ! 
I am undone. Hey ! io ! I am tired. Ho ! be still. Avaunt ! 
this way. Ah! what nonsense. Heigh-ho! I am delighted. 
Hist ! it is contemptible. Oh ! for that sympathetic glow ! 
Ah ! what withering phantoms glare ! 



PART III. 

SYNTAX. 

Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, 
and arrangement, of words in sentences. 

The relation of words, is their dependence, or connex- 
ion, according to the sense. 

The agreement of words, is their similarity in person, 
number, gender, case, mood, tense, or form. 

The government of words, is that power which one 
word has over an other, to cause it to assume some partic 
ular modification. 

The arrangement of words, is their collocation, or rel- 
ative position, in a sentence. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words, making complete 
sense, and always containing a nominative and a verb ; 
as, " Reward sweetens labour." 

The principal parts of a sentence are usually three ; 
namely, the subject, or nominative — the verb — and, 
(if the verb be transitive,) the object governed by the 
verb ; as, " Crimes deserve punishment? 

The other parts depend upon these, either as primary 
or as secondary adjuncts ; as, " High crimes justly de- 
serve very severe punishments." 

Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. 

A simple sentence is a sentence which conveys but one 



SYNTAX. RULES. 105 

affirmation or negation ; as, " Man is mortal." — " Charity 
is not easily provoked." 

A compound sentence is a sentence which may be re- 
solved into two or more simple ones ; as, " Idleness pro- 
duces want, vice, and misery." 

A clause, or member, is a subdivision of a compound sen- 
tence ; and is itself a sentence, either simple or compound. 

A phrase is two or more words which express some re- 
lation of different ideas, but no entire proposition ; as, "By 
the means appointed" — " To be plain with you." 

Words that are omitted by ellipsis, and that are neces- 
sarily understood in order to complete the construction, 
must be supplied in parsing. 

RULES OF SYNTAX. 

1. RELATION AND AGREEMENT. 
RULE I. ARTICLES. 

Articles relate to the nouns which they limit. 

RULE II. NOMINATIVES. • 

A Noun or a Pronoun which is the subject of a verb, 
must be in the nominative case. 

RULE III. APPOSITION. 

-A Noun or a personal Pronoun, used to explain a prece- 
ding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same 
case. 

RULE IV. ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns. 

RULE V. PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun 
or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and 
gender. 

RULE VI. PRONOUNS. 

When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the 
idea of plurality, the Pronoun must agree with it in the 
plural number. 

RULE VII. PRONOUNS. 

When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents connected 
by and, it must agree with them in the plural number, 

RULE VIII. PRONOUNS. 

When a Pronoun has two or more singular antecedents 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the 
singular number. 

RULE IX. VERBS. 

A Verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in 
person and number. 

RULE X. VERBS. 

When the nominative is a collective noun conveying the 
idea of plurality, the Verb must agree with it in the plural 
number. 

RULE XI. VERBS. 

When a Verb has two or more nominatives connected 
by and, it must agree with them in the plural number. 

RULE XII. VERBS. 

When a Verb has two or more singular nominatives con- 
nected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the singu- 
lar number. 

RULE XIII. VERBS. 

When Verbs are connected by a conjunction, they must 
either agree in mood, tense, and form, or have separate 
nominatives expressed. 

RULE XIV. PARTICIPLES. 

Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or are governed 
by prepositions. 

RULE XV. ADVERBS. 

Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other 
adverbs. 

RULE XVI. CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions connect either words or sentences. 

RULE XVII. PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions show -the relations of things. 

RULE XVIII. INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections have no dependent construction. 

% GOVERNMENT.* 
RULE XIX. POSSESSIVES. 

A noun or a pronoun in the Possessive case, is governed 
by the name of the thing possessed. 

* The Arrangement of words is treated of, in the Observations under the 
Rules of Syntax, page 122, et seq. 



SYNTAX. PARSING. 107 

RULE XX. OBJECTIVES. 

Active-transitive verbs, and their imperfect and pluper- 
fect participles, govern the Objective case. 

RULE XXI. SAME CASES. 

Active-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, and their 
participles, take the same case after as before them, when 
both words refer to the same thing. 

RULE XXII. OBJECTIVES. 

Prepositions govern the Objective case. 

RULE XXIII. INFINITIVES. 

The preposition to governs the Infinitive mood, and 
commonly connects it to a finite verb. 

RULE XXIV. INFINITIVES. 

The active verbs, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, 
see, and their participles, take the Infinitive after them, 
without the preposition to. 

RULE XXV. NOM. ABSOLUTE. 

A noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the Nominative, 
when its case depends on no other word. 

RULE XXVI. SUBJUNCTIVES. * 

A future contingency is best expressed by a verb in the 
Subjunctive, present ; and a mere supposition, with indefi- 
nite time, by a verb in the Subjunctive, imperfect : but a 
conditional circumstance assumed as a fact, requires the 
Indicative mood. 



EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

CHAPTER VIL— SYNTACTICAL. 

The grand clew to all syntactical parsing, is the sense ; and as 
any composition is faulty which does not rightly deliver the au- 
thor's meaning, so every solution of a tvord or sentence is necessa- 
rily erroneous, in which that meaning is not carefully noticed 
and literally preserved. 

In all syntactical parsing, it is required of the pupil — to dis- 
tinguish the different parts of speech and their classes; to 
mention their modifications in order ; to point out their relation, 
agreement, or government ; and to apply the Rules of Syntax. 
Thus : 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXAMPLE PARSED. 



"This enterprise, alas! will never compensate us for the 
trouble and expense with which it has been attended." 

This is a pronominal adjective, of the singular number, not compared : and 
relates to enterprise ; according to Rule IV, which says, " Adjec- 
tive* relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is — this 
enterprise. 

Enterprise is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter 
gender, and nominative case : and is the subject of will compensate; 
according to Rule II, which says, " A noun or a pronoun which is 
the subject of a verb, must be in the nominative case." Because 
the meaning is — enterprise will compensate. 

Alas is an interjection, indicating sorrow : and is used independently ; ac- 
cording to Rule XVIII, which says, " Interjections have no de- 
pendent construction." Because trie meaning is — alas. 1 — uncon- 
nected with the rest of the sentence. 

Will is an auxiliary to compensate. 

Never is an adverb of time : and relates to will compensate ; according to 
Rule XV, which says, " Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, ad- 
jectives, or other adverbs." Because the meaning is — never will 
compensate. 

Will compensate is a regular active-transitive verb, from compensate, com- 
pensated, compensating, compensated ; found in the indicative 
mood, first-future tense, third person, and singular number : and 
agrees with its nominative enterprise; according to Rule IX, 
which says, " A Verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, 
in person and number." Because the meaning is — enterprise will, 
compensate. 

Ih is a personal pronoun, representing the speakers, in the first person, plu- 
ral number, and masculine gender ; according to Rule V, which 
says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or 
pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender:" 
and is in the objective case, being governed by will compensate; 
according to Rule XX, which says, " Active- transitive verbs, and 
their imperfect and pluperfect participles, govern the objective case." 
Because the meaning is — will compensate us — i. e. will compensate 
the speakers. 

For is a preposition : and shows the relation between trouble and expense 
and will compensate ; according to Rule XVII, which says, " Prep- 
ositions show the relations of things." Because the meaning is 
— will compensate for trouble and expense. 

The is the definite article . and relates to trouble and expense ; according to 
Rule I, which says, " Articles relate to the nouns which they limit." 
Because the meaning is — the trouble and expense. 

Trouble is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter 
gender, and objective case : and is governed by for ; according to 
Rule XXII, which says, " Prepositions govern the objective case." 
Because the meaning is— for trouble. 

And is a copulative conjunction: and connects trouble and expense; ac- 
cording to Rule XVI, which says, " Conjunctions connect either 
words or sentences." Because the meaning is — trouble and ex- 
pense. 

Expense is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neu- 
ter gender, and objective case: and is connected by and to trou- 
ble, and governed by for ; according to Rule XXII, which aavs, 



SYNTAX. PARSING. 109 

11 Prepositions govern the objective case." Because the meaning 
is— -for trouble and expense. 

With is a preposition: and shows the relation between which and has 
been attended; according to Rule XVII, which says, "Preposi- 
tions show the relations of things." Because the meaning is- — 
which it has been attended with — or, has been attended with 
which. 

Which is a relative pronoun, representing tremble and expense, in the third 
person, plural number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 
VII, which says, "When a pronoun has two or more antecedents 
connected by and, it must agree with them in the plural number :" 
and is in the objective case, being governed by with ; according to 
Rule XXII, which says, "Prepositions govern the objective case." 
Because the meaning is — with which — i. e. with which tremble and 
expense. 

It is a. personal pronoun, representing enterprise, in the third person, singu- 
lar number, and neuter gender ; according to Rule V, which says, 
" A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pro- 
noun which it represents, in person, number, and gender :" and is 
in the nominative case, being the subject of has been attended; ac- 
cording to Rule II, which says, "A noun or a pronoun which is 
the subject of a verb, must be in the nominative case." Because 
the meaning is — it has been attended — i. e. the enterprise has been 
attended. 

Has been attended is a regular passive verb, from the active verb attend, 
attended, attending, attended — passive, to be attended; found 
in the indicative mood, perfect tense, third person, and singular 
number: and agrees with its nominative it; according to Rule 
IX, which says, " A verb must agree with its subject, or nomi- 
native, in person and number." Because the meaning is — it has 
been attended. 

LESSON I.— RULE I. 

A man of a lively imagination, has a property in every thing" 
which he sees ; and exults in the happiness of the myriads of 
living creatures that inhabit the woods, the lawns, and the moun- 
tains. 

As the branches of a tree return their sap to the root, from 
which it arose ; as a river pours its waters to the sea, from 
which its springs were supplied : so the heart of a grateful man 
delights in returning a benefit received. 

Spring hangs her infant blossoms on the trees, 
Rock'd in the, cradle of the western breeze. — Cowper. 

LESSON II.— RULE II. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident : that all men are cre- 
ated equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator, with cer- 
tain unalienable rights ; that among these, are life, liberty, and 
the pursuit of happiness. — Dec. of Independence. 

They who are moderate in their expectations, meet with few 
disappointments. 

10 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Which, now, of these three [men,] think est thou, was neigh' 
bour unto him that fell among the thieves ? And he said, ' He 
that showed mercy on him.' — Luke, x. 36. 

Who takes care of all people, when they are sunk in sleep, 
when they cannot defend themselves, nor see if danger ap- 
proaches ? — Barbauld. 

Men whose circumstances will permit them to choose their own 
way of life, are inexcusable, if they do not pursue that which 
their judgment tells them is the most laudable. — Blair. 

Thou rather, with thy sharp and sulph'rous bolt, 
Splitst the unwedgeable and gnarled oak. — Shak. 

LESSON III.— RULE III. 

In the fifth century, the Franks, a people of Germany, in- 
vaded France. — Allen. 

Jerusalem, the Jewish capital, was destroyed by the Romans 
under Titus the son of Vespasian. 

In the days of Joram, king of Israel, flourished the prophet 
Elisha. — Blair. 

Sisera fled, and took refuge in the tent of Jael, a woman of 
the Kenite tribe, the descendants of Hobab, Moses's brother -in* 
law. — Milman 

Him, Tubal nam'd, the Vulcan of old times, 

The sword and falchion their inventor claim. — Cowper. 

Virtue itself 'scapes not calumnious strokes. — Shak 

All now are vanished ! Virtue sole survives ; 
Immortal, never-failing friend of man, 
His guide to happiness on high. — Thomson. 

LESSON IV.— RULE IV. 

A suspicious uncharitable spirit is not only inconsistent with all 
social virtue and happiness, but it is also, in itself, unreasonable 
and unjust. — Blair. 

Any man who attends to what passes within himself, anay 
easily discern that the human character is a very complicated 
system. — Id. 

Among the vicious, friendship is coeval only with mutual sat- 
isfaction. — Allen. 

Pitch upon that course of life which is the most excellent, and 
custom will render it the most delightful. — Blair. 

No worldly enjoyments are adequate to the high desires and 
powers of an immortal spirit. — Id. 

The mighty tempest, and the hoary waste, 
Abrupt and deep, stretch'd o'er the buried earth, 
Awake to solemn thought. — Thomson. 



SYNTAX. PARSING. Ill 

The gaudy, babbling, and remorseful day- 
Is crept into the bosom of the sea. — Shak. 

LESSON V.— RULE V. 

The chief misfortunes that befall us in life, can be traced to 
some vices or follies which we have committed. 

The Psalms of David present religion to us, in the most en- 
gaging dress ; communicating truths which philosophy could 
never investigate, in a style which poetry can never equal. He 
who has once tasted their excellencies, will desire to taste them 
again ; and he who tastes them oftenest, will relish them best. — 
Home. 

4 Hassan,' said the caliph, l what canst thou have lost, whose 
wealth was the labour of thy own hand ; and what can have 
made thee sad, the spring of whose joy was in thy own bosom V 
— Hawkesworth. 

He that has light within his own clear breast, 
May sit in the centre, and enjoy bright day : 
But he that hides a dark soul and foul thoughts, 
Benighted walks under the mid-day sun. — Milton. 

LESSON VI.— RULE V. 

There is a simplicity in the words, which outshines the ut- 
most pride of expression. — Addison. 

He that can please nobody, is not so much to be pitied, as 
he that nobody can please. 

The meeting was so respectable, that the propriety of its 
decision can hardly be questioned. 

God is on the side of virtue : for whoever dreads punishment, 
suffers it ; and ivhoever deserves it, dreads it. — Lacon. 

Every society has a right to prescribe for itself the terms on 
which its members shall be admitted. 

We never, in a moral way, applaud or blame either ourselves 
or others for what we enjoy or what we suffer ; or for having 
impressions made upon us which we consider as being altogether 
out of our power : but only for what we do, or would have done 
had it been in our power ; or for what we leave undone which 
we might have done, or would have left undone though we could 
have done it. — Bp. Butler. 

Th' Egyptian crown J to your hands remit ; 
And with it take his heart who offers it. — Shak. 

LESSON VII.— RULE VI. 

The clergy declared against any peace which would not 
give to their prelates a right to sit in parliament. 



,112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The fair sex, whose task is not to mingle in theiabours of 
public life, have their own part assigned them to act. 

The committee, not depending on the royal favour, demand- 
ed the security of a legal and formal declaration of the rights 
xhey claimed. — Hist, of Ireland. 

The English people showed that they were not insensible to 
what was passing in Ireland. — Ibid. 

The majority of the assembly were more consistent and tem- 
perate : they considered that to decline a cessation, would be to 
refute all their professions of loyalty. — Ibid. 

By Wisdom tutor'd, Poetry exalts 

Her voice to ages ; and informs the page 

With music, image, sentiment and thought ; 

Never to die ! the treasure of mankind ! 

Their highest honour, and their purest joy ! — Thomson. 

LESSON VIII.— RULE VII. 

Socrates and Plato were celebrated for their wisdom ; they 
were the most eminent philosophers of Greece. — Murray. 

And Pharaoh sent, and called for Moses and Aaron, and 
said unto them, " I have sinned this time ; the Lord is right- 
eous, and I and my people are wicked.' — Bible. 

Education, when it works upon a noble mind, draws out to 
view many latent virtues and perfections, which, without its aid, 
would never be able to make their appearance. 

Honour thy father and mother, both in word and deed, that 
a blessing may come upon thee from them. 

How gladly would the man recall to life 

The boy's neglected sire ! a mother too, 

That softer friend, perhaps more gladly still, 

Might he demand them at the gates of death. — Cowper. 

LESSON IX.— RULE VIII. 

Snow or ice, when it melts, absorbs heat and produces cold. 

A marsh overgrown with willows, or a mountain shaded 
with oaks, is not only more beautiful but more beneficial, than 
when [it is] naked and unadorned. — Addison. 

Mark the effect of art upon a block of marble : how the 
skill of the polisher fetches out the colours, makes the surface 
shine, and discovers every ornamental cloud, spot, or vein, that 
runs through the body of it ! What sculpture is to a block of 
marble, education is to a human soul. — Id. 

The moral system of nature, or natural religion, approves 
itself almost intuitively to a reasonable mind, upon seeing it pro- 
posed. — Bj). Butler, 



SYNTAX . PARSING. 113 

The saint or moralist should tread 

This moss-grown alley, musing, slow ; 
[He seeks,] like me, the secret shade, 

But not, like me, to nourish wo. — Cowper. 

LESSON X.— RULE IX. 

I perceive the difference ; it is very obvious. 
Thou sayst thou dost not know where thou art. 
He does not like the office, and he begs to be excused. 
It seems she is disappointed, and no one pities her. 
We depend upon your assistance ; for we need it. 
Do you recollect the words 1 I think they arc these. 
They are found to be incorrect. Who knows them ? 
I retired from the throng, and sat down to read. 
Bad as the world is, respect is always paid to virtue. 
He stood alone, and was scoffed by the profane crew. 
He endeavoured to escape, but they caught him. 
She has finished her work, and we have seen it. 
It has often been done in this way, and has succeeded. 
We had left the company, and we did not see him. 
You will be wanted at home ; do not tarry. 
They will have returned to town ; you will see them. 

The seasons alter ; hoary-headed frosts 

Fall in the fresh lap of the crimson rose. — Shak. 

LESSON XL— RULE IX. 

Science may raise thee to eminence ; but religion alone can 
guide thee to felicity. — Aikin. 

If we would honour merit, we must not judge by appear- 
ances : a visored villain may seem fair. 

The laurels of the warrior must at all times be died in blood, 
and [be'} bedewed with the tears of the widow and the orphan. 
Often are they stained by rapine and cruelty. 

It might be expected, that humanity itself would prevent them 
from breaking into the last retreat of the unfortunate. 

He should consider often, who can choose but once. 

She may have forgotten the occurrence. 

They can not have been deceived, being eye-witnesses. 

Thou must have made a mistake. 

They might have had opportunity to have returned. 

What could have induced, him to act in that manner ? 

It would have been desirable to have had his company. 

If her son had fallen, her latter days would have been ren*- 
dered miserable : he was her only support. 

Had we not been too hasty, we should have discovered these 
me^'s secret intentions. 

10* 



114 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON XII.— RULE IX. 

If thine enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat j if he be 
thirsty, give him water to drink. — Prov. xxv. 21. 

If thou duly respected thy teacher, he would never have oc- 
casion to punish thee. 

If the mind were left uncultivated, though nothing else should 
find entrance, vice certainly would. — Blair. 

Say not thou, c I will recompense evil ;' but wait on the Lord, 
and he shall save thee. — Prov. xx. 22. 

Never indulge revenge to your own hurt. 

Abstain from injuring others, if you wish to be in safety. 

Do thou attend to this advice ; be not too confident. 

Do not waste your time ; omit no opportunity of improve- 
ment : time lost is lost forever. 

Be not discouraged ; ■ your wishes may yet be gratified. 

Intemperance engenders disease, sloth produces poverty, pride 
creates disappointment, and dishonesty exposes to shame. 

Loose conversation operates on the soul, as poison does on the 
body. 

LESSON XIIL— RULE IX. 

A variety of pleasing objects, charms the eye. 

Do not we all need assistance 1 Ought we, then, to withhold 
our aid from others ? Charity is kind to all. 

The narrative of his dangers and escapes is interesting. 

Humility, as well as merit, engages esteem. 

A sordid mind is incapable of friendship. — Karnes. 

Neither have I, nor has my partner, acceded to this request. 

The injuries we do, and those we suffer, are seldom weighed 
in the same balance. 

Why dost thou build the hall, son of the winged days ? thou 
lookest from thy towers to-day ; yet a few years, and the blast 
of the desert comes ; it howls in thy empty court.— Ossian. 

Light ! from whose rays all beauty springs. 
Darkness ! whose wide-expanded wings 

Involve the dusky globe, 
Praise him who, when the heavens he spread, 
Darkness his thick pavilion made, 

And light his regal robe. — Merrick. 

LESSON XIV.— RULE X. 

The generality of his hearers were favourable to his doc- 
trines.— Allen. 

The public are often deceived by false appearances and extrav- 
agant pretensions. 

A considerable number of the confederates were induced to 
abandon the counsels of the nuncio. — Hist of Ireland. 



SYNTAX.— PARSING. 115 

Around Bethesda's healing wave. 

Waiting to hear the rustling wing 
Which spoke the angel nigh who gave 

Its virtues to that holy spring, 
With patience and with hope endued, 
Were seen the gather'd multitude. — Anonymous. 

LESSON XV.-RULE XI. 

Our good and evil proceed from ourselves. 

Sincerity and truth form the basis of every virtue. 

Riches, honours, and pleasures, steal away the heart from 
religion. 

On some occasions, mildness and forbearance are more pow- 
erful than vehemence and severity. 

Virtue, diligence, and industry, joined with good temper and 
prudence, must ever be the surest means of prosperity. 

Day and night yield us contrary blessings ; and, at the same 
time, assist each other, by giving fresh lustre to the delights of 
both. — Melmoth. 

For never any thing can be amiss, 

When simpleness and duty tender it. — Shah. 

The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, 
And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, 

Await alike the inevitable hour : 

The paths of glory lead but to the grave. — Gray. 

LESSON XVI— RULE XII. 

Man's happiness or misery is, in a great measure, put into 
his own hands. — Blair. 

When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune, affects us, 
the sincerity of friendship is proved. 

Neither his vote, his influence, nor his purse, was ever with- 
held from the cause in which he had engaged. 

Has not sloth, or pride, or ill temper, or sinful passion, misled 
you from the path of sound and wise conduct ? 

Fools ! who from hence into the notion fall, 

That vice or virtue there is none at all. 

If white and black blend, soften, and unite 

A thousand ways, is there no black or white ? — Pope. 

LESSON XVII.— RULE XIII. 

Cheerfulness keeps up a kind of day-light in the mind, and 
Jills it with a steady and perpetual serenity. — Addison. 

King Solomon built a temple a and dedicated it to the Al- 
mighty. — Allen. 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The pleasures of sense resemble a foaming torrent ; which, 
after a disorderly course, speedily runs out, and leaves an empty 
and offensive channel. — Blair. 

Bursting into tears, she rose, and tore a lock from her hair ; 
a lock which waved o'er her heaving breast. — Ossian. 

Loose, then, from, earth the grasp of fond desire, 

Weigh anchor, and some happier clime explore. — Young. 

LESSON XVIIL— RULE XIV. 

He, stooping down and looking in, saw the linen clothes ly- 
ing ; yet went he not in. — John, xx. 5. 

A man used to vicissitudes, is not easily dejected. 

A habit of sincerity in acknowledging faults, is a guard 
against committing them. 

This is a measure founded on justice, supported by precedent, 
and warranted By necessity. — Allen. 

The bounty displayed in the earth, equals the grandeur mani- 
fested in the heavens. — Murray. 

Sitting is the best posture for deliberation ; standing, for per- 
suasion : a judge, therefore, should speak sitting; a pleader, 
standing. 

Having sold his patrimony, he engaged in merchandise. 

Amazed I stood, harrow* d with grief and fear. — Milton. 

Lips busy, and eyes fix 1 d, foot falling slow, 
Arms hanging idly down, hands clasp' d below, 
Interpret to the marking eye distress, 
Such as its symptoms can alone express. — Cowper. 

LESSON XIX.— RULE XV. 

How soon man's earthly enjoyments pass away ! — Allen. 

We naturally look with strong emotion to the spot, where the 
ashes of those we have loved, repose. — D. Webster. 

[Veturia's] son's wife, Volumnia, who was sitting with her 
when the women arrived, and who was greatly surprised at 
their coming, hastily asked them the meaning of so extraordi- 
nary an appearance. — Hooke. 

Virtue is bold, and goodness never fearful. — Shah 

The soul that sees Him, or receives, sublim'd, 

New faculties, or learns at least t' employ 

More worthily the powers she own'd before. — Cowper. 

The canker galls the infants of the spring, 
Too oft before their buttons be disclosed ; 
And, in the morn and liquid dew of youth, 
Contagious blastments are most imminent. — Shah. 



SYNTAX. PARSING. 



LESSON XX.— RULE XVI. 



nr 



Prosperity gains friends, and adversity tries them, 
if yon desire to be free from sin, avoid temptation 
The ancient Russians believed, that their northern mountains 
encompassed the globe. — Allen. 

I disregard their imputations, because I do not merit them. 
A judge ought to be influenced only by reason and evidence. 

Look ! as I blow this feather from my face, 

And as the air blows it to me again ; 

Obeying with my wind when I do blow, 

And yielding to an other when it blows ; 

Commanded always by the greater gust : 

Such is the lightness of you common men. — Shah. 

But thou ! who ownst that earthly bed, 

Ah ! what will every dirge avail ? 
Or tears which love and pity shed, 

That mourn beneath the gliding sail ! — Collins. 

LESSON XXI.— RULE XVII. 

Most 0/the troubles which we meet with in the world, arise 
from an irritable temper, ox from improper conduct. 

The want of regularity in the management of our affairs, 
very often prevents the successful accomplishment of those un- 
dertakings in which our fortune, comfort, and happiness, are 
involved. 

By the faults pothers, wise men learn to correct their own. 

* O momentary grace of mortal men, 

Which we more hunter than the grace -of God ! 
Who builds his hopes in air ofyoui fair looks, 
Lives like a drunken sailor on a mast ; 
Ready, with ev'ry nod, to tumble down 
Into the fatal bowels of the deep. — Shakspeare. 

Thou art the source and centre of all minds, 

Their only point o/rest, eternal Word ! 

From the departing, they are lost, and rove 

At random, without honour, hope, or peace.— Cowper. 

LESSON XXII— RULE XVIII. 

At that hour, O how vain was all sublunary happiness ! 
Alas, said I, man was made in vain ! how is he given away 
to misery and mortality ! — Addison. 

O stretch thy reign, fair Peace, from shore to shore, 
Till conquest cease, and slavery be no more ! — Pope. 



113 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



O Nature, how in every charm supreme ! 
Whose votaries feast on raptures ever new ! 

for the voice and fire of seraphim, 
To sing thy glories with devotion due ! — Beattie. 

Hail ! wedded love ! — 
Perpetual fountain of domestic sweets ! — Milton. 

LESSON XXIII.— RULE XIX. 

Charles's resignation filled all Europe with astonishment. 

Stately are his steps of age ! lovely the remnant of his years 
A crown of glory are his hoary locks ! 

Joy rose in Carthon's face : he lifted his heavy eyes. 

Eliza's sensibility is such, that her brother's misfortunes will 
greatly afflict her. 

A dutiful son will hear his father's instructions. 

What is the bigot's torch, the tyrant's chain ? 

1 smile on death, if heaven-ward hope remain. — Campbell. 

Ye thrones, dominions, virtues, powers, 
Join ye your joyful song with ours, 

With us your voices raise ; 
From age to age extend the lay, 
To heaven's eternal monarch pay 

Hymns of eternal praise. — Merrick 

. LESSON XXIV.— RULE XX. 

Do not insult a poor man : his misery entitles him to pity. 
When our vices leave us, we flatter ourselves that we leave 



While riotous indulgence enervates both the body and the 
mind, purity and virtue heighten all the powers of human 
fruition. 

What avails the show of external liberty, to one who has 
lost the government of himself? 

Princes have but their titles for their glories, 
An outward honour for an inward toil ; 
And, for unfelt imaginations, 
They often feel a world of restless cares. — Shah 

No flocks that range the valley, free, 

To slaughter I condemn : 
Taught by that power that pities me, 

I learn to pity them. — Goldsmith. 

LESSON XXV.— RULE XXI. 
The memory of mischief is no desirable fame. 



SYNTAX. — PARSING. 119 

Virtue is the surest road to happiness. 
Solid merit is a cure for ambition. 
Meekness and modesty are true and lasting ornaments. 
Universal benevolence and patriotic zeal appear to have been 
the motives of all his actions. 

Soon after his father's demise, he was crowned emperor. 
We, who never were his favourites , did not expect these at- 
tentions ; and we could scarcely believe it was he, 

Junius Brutus, the son of Marcus Brutus, and Collatinus, the 
husband of Lucretia, were chosen first consuls in Rome. 

The son, bred in sloth, becomes a spendthrift, a profligate, and 
goes out of the world a beggar. — Sicifl. 

I am, as thou art, a reptile of the earth : my life is a moment, 
and eternity — in which days, and years, and ages, are nothing — 
eternity is before me, for which I also should prepare. — Hawkes- 
worth. 

The Lord of all, himself through all diffused, 
Sustains, and is the life of all that lives. 
Nature is but a name for an effect 
Whose cause is God. — Cowper. 

LESSON XXVI.— RULE XXII. 
Titles of honour conferred upon those who have no personal 
merit, are like the royal stamp set upon base metal. 

In the varieties of life, we are inured to habits both of the 
active and the suffering virtues. — Blair. 

By disappointments and trials, the violence of our passions is 
tamed. — Blair. 

In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. 
There is none like unto the God of Jeshurun, who rideth 
upon the heaven in thy help, and in his excellency on the sky. — 
Deut. xxxiii. 26- 

For the kingdom of God is not in word, but in power. 
In the death of a man there is no remedy. — Bible. 
In every region the book of nature is open before us. 
Ah ! who can tell the triumphs of the mind, 
By truth illumin'd and by taste refin'd ? — Rogers. 
LESSON XXVII.— RULE XXIII. 

Leaning my head upon my hand, I began to figure to myself 
the miseries of confinement. — Sterne. 

Our ambassadors are instructed to negotiate a peace ; and 
there is reason to think they will succeed. 

I shall henceforth do good and avoid evil, without respect to 
the opinions of men ; and resolve to solicit only the approbation 
of that Being, whom alone we are sure to please by endeavour- 
ing to please him. — Johnson. 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Delightful task ! to rear the tender thought, 

To teach the young idea how to shoot, 

To pour the fresh instruction o'er the mind, 

To breathe the enlivening spirit, and to fix 

The generous purpose in the glowing breast. — Thomson, 

LESSON XXVIII.— RULE XXIV. 

You need not go. I heard my father bid the boy bring your 
trunk, and saw him go for it. I dare say it will be safe. 

Let him who desires to see others happy, make haste to give 
while his gift can be enjoyed. — Blair. 

None but the virtuous dare hope in bad circumstances. 

Thy Hector, wrapp'd in everlasting sleep, 

Shall neither hear thee cry, nor see thee weep, — Pope. 

Ye headlong torrents, rapid and profound ;' 

Ye softer floods, that lead the humid maze 

Along the vale ; and thou majestic main, 

A secret world of wonders in thyself ; 

Sound His stupendous praise, whose greater voice 

Or bids you roar, or bids your roarings /&£/. — Thomson. 

LESSON XXIX.— RULE XXV. 

This proposition being admitted, I now state my argument. 

There being much obscurity in the case, he refuses to decide 
upon it. 

They being absent, we cannot come to a determination. 

The senate consented to the creation of tribunes of the peo- 
ple, Appius alone protesting against the measure. 

Fathers ! Senators of Rome ! the arbiters of nations ! to you 
I fly for refuge. — Tr. Sallust. 

Remember, Almet, that the world in which thou art placed, 
is but the road to an other. — Hawkesworth. 

Return, my son, to thy labour : thy food shall again be taste- 
ful, and thy rest shall be sweet. — Johnson. 

Ingratitude! thou marble-hearted fiend, 

More hideous when thou showst thee in a child, 

Than the sea-monster ! — Shakspeare. 

O wretched we ! why were we hurried down 
This lubric and adulterate age ! — Dryden. 

LESSON XXX.— RULE XXV. 

What misery doth the vicious man secretly endure ! Adver- 
sity ! how blunt are all the arrows of thy quiver, in comparison 
with those of guilt. — Blair. 



SYNTAX. ARTICLES. 121 

Remember the uncertainty of life, and restrain thy hand from 
evil He that was yesterday a king, behold him dead, and the 
beggar is better than he. — Bible. 

The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, 

Had he thy reason, would he skip and* play ? — Pope, 

Hail ! mildly pleasing Solitude, 
Oompanimi of the wise and good. 

All this dread order break — for whom ? for thee ? 
Vile worm ! — Oh madness ! pride ! impiety I — Pope. 

My Absalom ! the voice of nature cried, 

Oh ! that for thee thy father could have died ! 

For bloody was the deed, and rashly done, 

That slew my Absalom ! — my son ! — my son ! — Campbell. 

LESSON XXXI.— RULE XXVL 

Though hand join in hand, the wicked shall not be unpun- 
ished. — Prov. xi. 21. 

Let him that hastens to be rich., take heed lest he suddenly 
become poor. 

If the king were present, Cleon, there would be no need of 
my answering to what thou hast just proposed. — Goldsmith. 

He seems to have made an injudicious choice, though he is 
esteemed a sensible man. 

Inspiring thought, of rapture yet to be ! 

The tears of love were hopeless but for thee ! 

If in that frame no deathless spirit dwell, 

If that faint murmur be the last farewell, 

If fate unite the faithful but to part, 

Why is their rciem'ry sacred to the heart ? — Campbell. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 

WITH EXAMPLES, EXCEPTIONS, OBSERVATIONS, NOTES, AND FALSE 

SYNTAX. 

1. RELATION AND AGREEMENT. 

Obs. — Relation and Agreement are taken together that the rules' may stand 
in the order of the parts of speech. The latter is moreover naturally allied 
to the former. Seven of the ten parts of speech are, with a few exception?, 
Incapable of any agreement ; of these, the relation and use must be explain- 
ed in parsing ; and all necessary agreement between any of the restj m con- 
fined to words that relate to each other. 

11 






122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULB I.— ARTICLES. ^ 

Articles relate to the nouns which they limit : as, " At 
a little distance from the ruins of the abbey, stands an 
aged elm." 

EXCEPTION FIRST. 

The definite article, used intensively, may relate to an adjective or adverb 
of the comparative or the superlative degree; as, "A land which was the 
mightiest" — Byron. " The farther they proceeded, the greater appeared 
their alacrity." — Dr. Johnson. "He chooses it the rather." — Cowper. [See 
Obs. 7th, below.] 

EXCEPTION SECOND. 

The indefinite article is sometimes used to give a collective meaning to an 
adjective of number ; as, " Thou hast a few names, even in Sardis." — Rev, 
" There are a thousand things which crowd into my memory." — Spectator, 
No. 468. [See Obs. 12th, next page.] 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE I. 

Obs. 1. — Articles often relate to nouns understood; as, "The [river] 
Thames" — " Pliny the younger" [man] — " The honourable [body,] the Legis- 
lature" — "The animal [world] and the vegetable world" — "Neither to the 
right [hand] nor to the left" [hand.] — Bible. " He was a good man, and a 
just" [7tta?t.J — lb-. " The pride of swains Palemon was, the generous [man,] 
and the rich" [man.] — Thomson. 

Obs. 2. — It is not always necessary to repeat the article before several 
nouns in the same construction : the same article serves sometimes to limit 
the signification of more than one noun ; but we doubt the propriety of ever 
construing two articles as relating to one and the same noun. 

Obs. 3. — The article precedes its noun, and is never, by itself, placed after 
it; as, " Passion is the drunkenness of the mind." — Southey. 

Obs. 4. — When an adjective precedes the noun, the article is placed be- 
fore the adjective, that its power may extend over that also; as^ 
" The private path, the secret acts of men, 
If noble, far the noblest of their lives." — Young. 
Except the adjectives all, such, many, what, both, and those which are pre- 
ceded by the adverbs too, so, as, or how; as, " All the materials were bought 
at too dear a rate." — " Like many an other poor wretch, I now suffer all the 
ill consequences of so foolish an indulgence." 

Obs. 5.— When the adjective is placed after the noun, the article general- 
ly retains its place before the noun, and is not repeated before the adjective ; 
as, "A man ignorant of astronomy" — " The primrose pale." In Greek, when 
an adjective is placed after its noun, if the article is prefixed to the noun, it 
is repeated before the adjective; as, 'H TrdXts h pcyaXn, The city the great; 
i. e. The great city. 

Obs. 6. — Articles, according to their own definition, belong before their 
nouns ; but the definite article and an adjective seem sometimes to be placed 
after the noun to which they both relate : as, " Section the fourth" — " Henry 
the Eighth." Such examples, however, may be supposed elliptical ; and, if 
they are so, the article, in English, can never be placed after its noun, nor 
can two articles ever properly relate to one noun, in any particular construc- 
tion of it. 

Obs. 7. — The definite article is often prefixed to comparatives and su- 
feriatives ; and its effect is, as Murray observes, (in the words of Lowth,) 
"to mark the degree the more strongly, and to define it the more pre- 
cisely : n as, " The oftener I see him, the more I respect him." — " A con* 



SYNTAX.-— ARTICLES. 123 

etitution the most fit" — " A claim, the strongest, and the most easily com- 
prehended" — "The men the most difficult to be replaced." In these in- 
stances, the article seems to be used adverbially, and to relate only to the 
adjective or adverb following it ; but after the adjective, the noun may be 
supplied. 

Oes. 8. — The article the is applied to nouns of both numbers ; as, The man, 
the men — The good boy, the good boys. 

Obs. 9. — The article the is generally prefixed to adjectives that are used, 
by ellipsis, as nouns ; as, 

" The great, the gay, shall they partake 
The heav'n that thou alone canst make V — Cowper. 

Obs. 10. — The article the is sometimes elegantly used in stead of a posses- 
sive pronoun; as, "Men who have not bowed the knee to the image of 
BaaL" — Rom. xi. 4. 

Obs. 11. — An or a implies one, and belongs to nouns of the singular num- 
ber only; as, A man, a good boy. 

Obs. 12. — An or a is sometimes put before an adjective of number, when 
the noun following is plural; as, "A few days" — U A hundred sheep" — 
" There are a great many adjectives." — Dr. Adam. In these cases, the auri- 
cle seems to relate only to the adjective. Some grammarians however call 
these words of number nouns, and suppose an ellipsis of the preposition of. 
Murray and many others call them adjectives, arid suppose a peculiarity of 
construction in the article. 

Obs. 13. — An or a has sometimes the import of each or ev-ery ; as, "He 
came twice a year." The article irl this sense with a preposition understood, 
is preferable to the mercantile per, so frequently used ; as, " Fifty cents [for] 
a bushel" — rather than " per bushel." 

Obs. 14. — A, as prefixed to participles in ing, or used in composi- 
tion, is a preposition; being, probably, the French a, signifying to, at, on, 
in, or of; as, " They burst out a laughing." — M. Edgeworth. " He is 
gone a hunting." — " She lies a-bed all day." — " He stays out a-nights." 
— "They ride out a- Sundays." Shakspeare often uses the prefix a, and 
sometimes in a manner peculiar to himself; as, "Tom's a cold" — "a- 
weary." 

Obs. 15. — An is sometimes a conjunction, signifying, if; as, 
" Nay, an thou'lt mouthe, I'll rant as w T ell as thou." — Sliak. 

NOTES TO RULE I. 

Note I. — When the indefinite article is required, a should 
always be used before the sound of a- consonant, and <m, before 
that of a vowel ; as, " WiJh the talents of an angel, a man may- 
be a fool." — Young. 

Obs. — An was formerly used before all words beginning with h, and be- 
fore several other words which are now pronounced in such a manner as to 
require a: thus, we read in the Bible, " An house — an hundred — an one — 
an ewer — an usurer.'' 

Note II. — When nouns are joined in construction, without 
a close connexion and common dependence, the article must be 
repeated. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate : 
a She never considered the quality, but merit of her visitors." — 
Wm. Pen?i. The should be inserted before merit 

Note III. — When adjectives are connected, and the qualities 
belong to things individually different, though of the same 



I il 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

name, the article should he repeated : as, " A hlack and a white 
horse " — i. e. two horses, one black and the other white. 

Note IV. — When adjectives are connected, and the qualities 
all belong to the same thing or things, the article should not be 
repeated ; as, " A black and white horse " — i. e. one horse, piebald. 

Obs. 1. — The reason of the two preceding notes is this : by a repetition. 
of the article before several adjectives in the same construction, a repetition 
of the noun is implied ; but without a repetition of the article, the adjectives 
are confined to one and the same noun. 

Obs. 2. — To avoid repetition, we sometimes, with one article, join incon- 
sistent qualities to a plural noun; as, " The Old and New Testaments" — 
for, " The Old and the New Testament." But the phrases, " The Old and 
New Testament," and " The Old and the New Testaments-" are both ob- 
viously incorrect. 

Note V. — The article should not be used before the names 
of virtues, vices, passions, arts, or sciences ; before simple proper 
names ; or before any noun whose signification is sufficiently 
definite without it : as, " Falsehood is odious." — " Iron is use- 
ful." — "Beauty is vain." 

Note* VI. — When titles are mentioned merely as titles, the 
article should not be used ; as, " He is styled Marquis? 1 — 
u Ought a teacher to call his pupil Master . ? " 

Note VIL — In expressing a comparison, if both nouns refer 
to the same subject, the article should not be inserted ; if to dif- 
ferent subjects, it should not be omitted : thus, if we say, " He 
is a better teacher than poet," we compare different qualifica- 
tions of the same man ; but if we say, ' 4 He is a better teacher 
than a poet," we refer to different men. 

Note VIII. — The definite article, or some other definitive, is 
generally required before the antecedent to the pronoun tvho or 
which in a restrictive clause ; as, " The men who were present, 
consented." 

Note IX. — The article is generally required in that con- 
struction which converts a participle into a verbal noun ; as, 
u The completing of this, by the icorking-out of sin inherent, 
must be by the power and spirit of Christ, in the heart." — Wm. 
Pe?i?i. u They shall be an abhorring unto all flesh." — Isaiah^ 
lxvi. 24. 

Note X. — The article should not be prefixed to a participle 
that is not taken in all respects as a noun ; as, " He made a 
mistake in the giving out the text." Expunge the, 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE I. 

f^f [The Examples of False Syntax placed under the rules, are to b© 
corrected orally by the pupil, according to the formules given, or according 
to others framed in like manner, and adapted to the several notes.! 



SYNTAX.— ARTICLES. 1 25 

Examples under Note 1. 

He went into an house. 

[Not proper, because the article an is used before house, which begins 
with the sound of the consonant h. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 
1st. " When the indefinite article is required, a should always be used before 
the sound of a consonant, and an before that of a vowel." Therefore, an 
should be a ; thus, He went into a house.] 

This is an hard saying. 

A humble heart shall find favour. 

Passing from an earthly to an heavenly diadem. 

Few have the happiness of living with such an one. 

She evinced an uniform adherence to the truth. 

A hospital is an asylum for the sick. 

This is truly an wonderful invention. 

He is an younger man than Ave supposed. 

An humorsome child is never long pleased. 

A careless man is unfit for a hostler. 

Under Note 2. 

Avoid rude sports : an eye is soon lost, or bone broken. 
As the drop of the bucket and dust of the balance. 
Not a word was uttered, nor sign given. 
I despise not the doer, but deed. 

Under Note 3. 

What is the difference between the old and new method ? 

The sixth and tenth have a close resemblance. 

Is Paris on the right hand or left ? 

Does Peru join the Atlantic or Pacific ocean? 

He was influenced both by a just and generous principle.. 

The book was read by the old and young. 

I have both the large and small grammar. 

Are both the north and south line measured ? 

Are the north line and south both measured ? 

Are both the north and south lines measured ? 

Are both the north lines and south measured? 

Under Note 4. 

Is the north and the south line measured ? 
Are the two north and the south lines both measured ? 
A great and a good man looks beyond time. 
They made but a weak and an ineffectual resistance. 
The Allegany and the Monongahela rivers form the Ohio. 
I rejoice that there is an other and a better world. 
Were God to raise up an other such a man as Moses. 
The light and ths worthless kernels will float. 

11* 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Under Note 5. 
CI eon was an other sort of a man. 
There is a species of an animal called a seal. 
Let us wait in the patience and the quietness. 
The contemplative mind delights in the silence. 
Arithmetic is a branch of the mathematics. 
You will never have an other such a chance. 
I expected some such an answer. 
And I persecuted this way unto the death. 

Under Note 6. 
He is entitled to the appellation of a gentleman. 
Cromwell assumed the title of a Protector. 
Her father is honoured with the title of an Earl. 
The chief magistrate is styled a President. 
The highest title in the state is that of the Governor. 

Under Note 7. 
He is a better writer than a reader. 
He was an abler mathematician than a linguist. 
1 should rather have an orange than apple. 

Under Note 8. 

Words which are signs of complex ideas, are liable to be mis- 
understood. 

Carriages which were formerly in use, were very clumsy. 

The place is not mentioned by geographers who wrote at that 
time. 

Under Note 9. 

Means are always necessary to accomplishing of ends. 

By seeing of the eye, and hearing of the ear, learn wisdom. 

In keeping of his commandments, there is great reward. 

For revealing of a secret, there is no remedy. 

Have you no repugnance to torturing of animals ? 

Under Note 10. 
By the breaking the law, you dishonour the lawgiver. 
An argument so weak is not worth the mentioning. 
In the letting go our hope, we let all go. 
Avoid the talking too much of your ancestors. 
The cuckoo keeps the repeating her unvaried notes. 
Forbear the boasting of what you can do. 

RULE II.— NOMINATIVES. 

A Noun or a Pronoun which is the subject of a verb, 
must be in the nominative case : as, 

" I know thou sayst it : says thy life the same ?" — Young. 



SYNTAX.— NOMINATIVES. 127 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE II. 

Dbs. 1. — To this rule there are no exceptions. And in connected lan- 
guage, every nominative stands as the subject of some verb expressed or un- 
derstood ; except such as are put in apposition with other nominatives, ac- 
cording to Rule 3d — after a verb, according to Rule 21 st — or absolute, accord- 
ing *o Rule 25th. 

Ots. 2. — The subject, or nominative, is generally placed before the verb; 
as, " Peace dawned upon his mind." — Johnson. " Wliat is written in the 
law?" -Bible. 

Obs. 3. — But, in the following nine cases, the subject is usually placed af- 
ter the verb, or after the first auxiliary : 

1. When a question is asked, without an interrogative pronoun in the 
nominative case; as, " Shall mortals be implacable'? 5 — " What art thou do- 
ing ?" — Hooke. 

2. W T hen the verb is in the imperative mood ; as, " Go thou." 

3. When an earnest wish, or other strong feeling is expressed ; as, "May 
she be happy !" — " How were we struck!" — Young. 

4. When a supposition is made without a conjunction; as, " Were it true, 
it would not injure us." 

5. When neither or nor, signifying and not, precedes the verb ; as, " This 
was his fear ; nor was his apprehension groundless. 

6. When, for the sake of emphasis, some word or words are placed before 
the verb, which more naturally come after it ; as, " Here am I." — " Narrow 
is the way." — "Silver and gold have /none; but such as I have, give I 
thee."— Bible. 

7. W T hen the verb has no regimen, and is itself emphatical ; as, " EcJio 
the mountains round." — Thomson. 

8. W T hen the verbs say, think, reply, and the like, introduce the parts of a 
dialogue; as, "'Son of affliction,' said Omar, 'who art thou? 'My name,' 
replied the stranger, 'is Hassan. 5 "— Johnson. 

9. When the adverb there precedes the verb ; as, " There lived a man." — 
Montg. " In all worldly joys, there is a secret wound." — Owen. 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE II. 

Thee must have been idle. 

[Not proper, because the objective pronoun thee is made the subject of the 
verb must have been. But, according to Rule 2d, " A noun or a pronoun 
which is the subject of a verb, must be in the nominative case.' 5 Therefore, 
thee should be thou ; thus, Thou must have been idle.] 

Him that is studious, will improve. 

Them that seek wisdom, will he wfse. 

She and me are of the same age. 

You are two or three years older than us. 

Are not John and thee cousins % 

I can write as handsomely as thee. 

Nobody said so but him. 

Whom dost thou think was there % 

Who broke this slate % Me. 

We are alone ; here's none but thee and I. — Shah. 

Them that honour me, I will honour ; and them that despise 

me, shall be lightly esteemed. 
He whom in that instance was deceived, is a man of sound 

judgement. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE III.— APPOSITION. 

A Noun or a personal Pronoun used to explain a pre- 
ceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same 
case * as, 

" But he, our gracious Master, kind as just, 
Knowing our frame, remembers we are dust." — Barbauld. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE III. 

Obs. 1. — Apposition is the using of different words or appellations, to des- 
ignate the same thing. Apposition also denotes the relation which exists 
between the words which are so employed. In parsing, rule third should 
be applied only to the explanatory term ; because the case of the principal 
term depends on its relation to the rest of the sentence, and comes under 
some other rule. 

Obs. 2. — To this rule, there are properly no exceptions. But there are 
many puzzling examples under it, which the following observations are 
designed to explain. The rule supposes the first word to be the principal 
term, with which the other is in apposition; and it generally is so: but 
the explanatory word is sometimes placed first, especially among the 
poets j as, 

" From bright'ning fields of ether fair disclos'd, 
Child of the sun, refulgent Summer comes." — Thomson. 

Obs. 3. — The pronouns of the first and second persons are often prefix- 
ed to nouns, merely to distinguish their person ; as, " I John saw these 
things." — " This is the stone which was set at nought of you builders." — 
Bible. "His praise, ye brooks, attune." — TJwmson. In this case of appo- 
sition, the words are closely united, and either of them may be taken as the 
explanatory term : the learner will find it easier to parse the noun by rule 
third. 

Obs. 4. — When two or more nouns of the possessive case are put in ap- 
position, the possessive termination added to one, denotes the case of 
both or all; as, " His brother Philip's wife" — " John the Baptist's head." — 
"At my friend Johnson's, the bookseller." By a repetition of the posses- 
sive sign, a distinct governing noun is implied, and the apposition is de- 
stroyed. 

Obs. 5.— In like manner, a noun without the possessive sign, is some- 
times put in apposition with a pronoun of the possessive case; as, " As an 
author, his ' Adventurer' is his capital work." — Murray. 
" Thus shall mankind his guardian care engage, 
The promised father of the future age." — Pope. 

Obs. 6. — When a noun or pronoun is repeated for the sake of emphasis, 
the word which is repeated may properly be said to be in apposition with 
that which is first introduced; as, " They have forsaken me, the Fountain 
of living waters, and hewed them out cisterns, broken cisterns, that can hold 
no water." — Jer. ii. 13. 

Obs. 7. — A noun is sometimes put in apposition to a sentence; as, "He 
permitted me to consult his library^-a kindness which I shall not forget." — 
Allen. ♦ 

Obs. 8. — A distributive term in the singular number, is frequently con- 
strued in apposition with a comprehensive plural ; as, " T7iey reap vanity, 
every one with his neighbour." — Bible. "Go ye every man unto his 
city." — Ibid. And sometimes a phiral word is emphatically put after a 



SYNTAX.—- APPOSITION. 129 

series of particulars comprehended under it ; as, " Ambition, interest, honour, 
all concurred." — Murray. " Royalists, republican*, churchmen, sectaries, 
courtiers, patriots, all parties concurred in the illusion." — Hume. 

Obs. 9. — To express a reciprocal action or relation, the pronominal ad- 
jectives each other and one an other are employed : as, " They love each other ;" 
— " They love one an other." The words separately considered, are singular ; 
but taken together, they imply plurality ; and they can be properly con- 
strued only after plurals, or singulars taken conjointly. Each other is usual- 
ly applied to two objects ; and one an other, to more than two. The terms, 
though reciprocal, and closely united, are never in the same construction. 
If such expressions be analyzed, each and one will generally appear to be in 
the nominative case, and other in the objective; as, " They love each other;" 
i. e. each loves the other. Each is properly in apposition with they, and other 
is governed by the verb. The terms, however, admit of other constructions ; 
as, " Be ye helpers one of an other." — Bible. Here one is in apposition with 
ye, and other is governed by of. "Ye are one an other's joy." — lb. Here 
one is in apposition with ye, and other's is in the possessive case, being gov- 
erned by joy. " Love will make you one an other's joy." Here one is in the 
objective case, being in apposition with you, and other's is governed as be- 
fore. The Latin terms alius alium, alii alioSj &c. sufficiently confirm this 
doctrine. 

Obs. 10. — The common and the proper name of an object are often asso- 
ciated, and put in apposition ; as, The river Thames — The ship Albion — The 
poet Cowper — Lake Erie — Cape May — Mount Atlas. But the proper name 
of a place, when accompanied by the common name, is generally put in the 
objective case, and preceded by of; as, The city of New York — The land 
of Canaan. 

Obs. 11. — The several proper names which distinguish an individual, are 

ways in apposition, and should be taken together in parsing ; as, William 

Hit — Marcus Tullius Cicero. 

Obs. 12. — When an object acquires a new name or character from the ac- 
tion of a verb, the new appellation is put in apposition with the object of the 
active verb, and in the nominative after the passive ; as, " They named the 
child John — The child was named John." — " They elected him president — 
He was elected president." — After the active verb, the acquired name must 
be parsed by Rule 3d ; after the passive, by Rule 21st. 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE III. 

I have received a letter from my cousin, she that was here 
last week. 

[Not proper, because the nominative pronoun she is used to explain the 
objective noun cousin. But, according to Rule 3d, "A noun or a personal 
pronoun, used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposi- 
tion, in the same case." Therefore, she should be her; thus, I have receiv- 
ed a letter from my cousin, her that was here last week.] 

The book is a present from my brother Richard, he that keeps 
the bookstore. 

I am going to see my friends in the country, they that we met 
at the ferry. 

This dress was made by Catharine, the milliner, she that we 
saw at work. 

Dennis, the gardener, him that gave me the tulips, has promis- 
ed me a piony. 



p 









130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Resolve me, why the cottager and king, 
Him whom sea-sever'd realms obey, and him 
Who steals his whole dominion from the waste, 
Repelling winter blasts with mud and straw, 
Disquieted alike, draw sigh for sigh. 

RULE IV.— ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns : as, " He is a 
wise man, though he is youngP 

EXCEPTION FIRST. 

An adjective sometimes relates to a phrase or sentence which is made the 
subject of an intervening verb; as, " To insult the afflicted, is impious." — 
Dillwyn. " Tliat he should refuse, is not strange." 

EXCEPTION SECOND. 

With an infinitive or a participle denoting being or action in the abstract, 
an adjective is sometimes also taken abstractly ; (that is, without reference 
to any particular noun, pronoun, or other subject;) as, "To be sincere, is to 
be wise, innocent, and safe." — Hawkesworth. " Capacity marks the abstract 
quality of being able to receive or hold." — Crabb's Synonymes. 

OBSERVATIONS OJ^ RULE IV. 

Obs. 1. — Adjectives often relate to nouns understood; as, " The nine," 
[muses.] — " Philip was one of the seven" [deacons.] — "He came unto his 
own [possessions,] and his own [men] received him not." — " The Lord your 
God is God of gods, and Lord of lords, a great God, a mighty [God,] and a 
terrible" [God.]— Dent, x. 17. 

Obs. 2. — In as much as qualities belong only to things, most grammarians 
teach that every adjective belongs to some noun expressed or understood ; 
and suppose a countless number of unnecessary ellipses. But it is evi- 
dent that in the construction of sentences, adjectives often relate imme- 
diately to pronouns, and, through them, to the nouns they represent. This 
is still more obviously the case, in some other languages, as may be seen 
by the following examples, which retain something of the Greek idium : 
" All ye are brethren." — " Whether of them twain did the will of his father." 
— N. Test. 

Obs. 3. — When an adjective follows a finite verb, and is not followed by 
a noun, it generally relates to the subject of the verb ; as, " /am glad that 
the door is made wide" — " Every thing which is false, vicious, or unworthy, 
is despicable to him, though all the world should approve it." — Spectator, No. 
520. Here false, vicious, and unworthy, relate to which ; and despicable re- 
lates to thing. 

Obs. 4. — When an adjective follows an infinitive or a participle, the noun 
or pronoun to which it relates, is sometimes before it, and sometimes after it, 
and often considerably remote ; as, " A real gentleman cannot but practise 
those virtues which, by an intimate knowledge of mankind, he has found to 
be useful to them." — " He [a melancholy enthusiast] thinks himself obliged 
in duty to be sad and disconsolate." — Addison. " He is scandalized at youth 
for being lively, and at childhood for being playful." — Id. " But growing 
weary of one who almost walked him out of breath, he left him for Horace 
and Anacreon." — Steele. 

Obs. 5. — Adjectives preceded by the definite article, are often used, 



SYNTAX. ADJECTIVES. 131 

by ellipsis, as nouns. They designate those classes of objects which are 
characterized by the qualities they express ; and, in parsing, the noun may 
be supplied. They are most commonly of the plural number, and refer to 
persons, places, or things, understood ; as, "The careless [persons] and the 
imprudent, the giddy and the fickle, the ungrateful and the interested every- 
where meet us." — Blair. 

" Together let us beat this ample field, 
Try what the open [places], what the covert, yield." — Pope. 

Obs. 6. — The adjective is generally placed immediately before its noun; 
as, " Vain man ! is grandeur given to gay attire V 1 — Beattie. 

Obs. 7. — Those adjectives which relate to pronouns most commonly fol- 
low them; as, " They left me weaiy on a grassy turf." — Milton. 

Obs. 8. — In the following instances, the adjective is placed after the noun 
to which it relates : 

1 . When other words depend on the adjective ; as, " A mind conscious of 
right"— " A wall three feet thick." 

2. When the quality results from the action of a verb ; as, " Virtue ren- 
ders life happy." 

3. When the adjective would thus be more clearly distinctive ; as, " Good- 
ness infinite" — "Wisdom unsearchable." 

4. When a verb comes between the adjective and the noun ; as, " Truth. 
stands independent of all external things." — Burgh. 

Obs. 9. — In some cases, the adjective may either precede or follow the 
noun; as, 

1. In poetry ; as, 

" Wilt thou to the isles 
Atlantic, to the rich Hesperian clime, 
Fly in the train of Autumn?' — Akenside. 

2. In some technical expressions; as, "A notary public," or, "A public 
notary." 

3. When an adverb precedes the adjective ; as, "A Being infinitely wise," 
or, " An infinitely wise Being." 

4. When several adjectives belong to the same noun ; as, "A woman, 
modest, sensible, and virtuous," or, " A modest, sensible, and virtuous wo- 
man." 

Obs. 10. — An emphatic adjective may be placed first in the sentence, 
though it belong after the verb ; as, " Weighty is the anger of the right- 
eous." — Bible. 

Obs. 11. — By an ellipsis of the noun, an adjective with a preposition be- 
fore it, is sometimes equivalent to an adverb; as, " In particular ;" that is, vn 
a particular manner; equivalent to u particularly." In parsing, supply the 
ellipsis. [See Obs. 2d, under Rule xxii.] 

NOTES TO RULE IV. 

Note I. — Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, must 
agree with their nouns in number j" as, That sort, those sorts. 

Note II. — When the adjective is necessarily plural, the 
noun should be made so too ; as, " Twenty pounds" — not, 
"Twenty pound" 

Obs. 1. — In some peculiar phrases this rule appears to be disregarded ; as, 
" Two hundred pennyworth of bread is not sufficient."— Joh n, vi. 7. " Twen- 
ty sail of vessels" — " A hundred head of cattle." 

Obs, 2.— To denote a collective number, a singular adjective may pre- 



4 






132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

cede a plural one; as, " One hundred men" — " Every six weeks" — " One 
seven times." — Dan. iii. 19. 

Obs. 3. — To denote plurality, the adjective many may, in like manner, 
precede an or a with a sirvgular noun ; as, 

" Full many ajlower is born to hlush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air." — Gray. 

Note III. — The noun means, and some others, have the same 
form in both numbers : they should therefore be used without 
change of number, with an adjective singular or plural, as the 
sense requires ; as, u By this means they bear witness to each 
other."— Burke. Mean, in this sense, is not in good use. 

Note IV. — The comparative degree can only be used in 
reference to two objects, or classes of objects ; the superlative 
compares one or more things with all others of the same class, 
whether few or many : as, " Edward is taller than James ; he 
is the largest of my scholars." 

Note V. — When the comparative degree is employed, the 
latter term of comparison should never include the former ; as, 
u Iron is more useful than all the metals." It should be, " than 
all the other metals." 

Note VI. — When the superlative degree is employed, the 
latter term of comparison should never exclude the former ; as^ 
" A fondness for show, is, of all other follies, the most vainjl 
The word other should be expunged. 

Note VII. — Comparative terminations, and adverbs of de- 
gree, should not be applied to adjectives that are not susceptible 
of comparison ; and all double comparatives and superlatives 
should be avoided ; as, " So universal a complaint :" say, " so 
general" — u Some less nobler plunder :" say, " less noble." — " The 
most straitest sect :" expunge most. 

Note VIII. — When adjectives are connected by conjunctions, 
the shortest and simplest should be placed first ; as, " He is older 
and more respectable than his brother.' ' 

Note IX. — An adjective and its noun may be taken as a 
compound term, to which other adjectives may be prefixed. 
The most distinguishing quality should be expressed next to 
the noun ; as, " A fine young man" — not, " A young fine man." 

Note X. — In prose, the use of adjectives for adverbs, is im- 
proper ; as, " He writes elegant 11 — say, " elegantly." 

Obs 1. — In poetry, an adjective relating to the noun or pronoun, is some- 
times elegantly used in stead of an adverb qualifying the verb or participle ; 
as, 

" To thee I bend the knee ; to thee my thoughts 
Continual climb." — Thomson. 

Obs. 2. — In order to determine, in difficult cases, whether an adjective 
or an adverb is required, the learner should carefully attend to the defi- 
nitions of these parts of speech, and consider whether, in the case 



SYNTAX. ADJECTIVES. 133 

in question, quality or manner is to be expressed : if the former, an ad- 
jective is proper; if the latter, an adverb. The following examples will 
illustrate this point: "She looks cold; — she looks coldly on him." — "I 
sat silent; — I sat silently musing." — " Stand firm; — maintain your cause 
firmly." 

Note XI. — The pronoun them should never be used as an 
adjective in lieu of those: say, " I bought those books" — not, 
" them books." This is a vulgar error. 

Note XII. — When the pronominal adjectives, this and that, 
or these and those, are contrasted ; this or these should represent 
the latter of the antecedent terms, and that or those, the former ; 
as, 

" And, reason raise o'er instinct as you can, 
In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man." — Pope. 

" Farewell my friends ! farewell my foes ! 
My peace with these, my love with those /" — Burns. 

Note XIII. — The pronominal adjectives each, one, either, 
and neither, are always in the third person singular ; and, when 
they are the leading words in their clauses, they require verbs 
and pronouns, to agree with them accordingly : as, " Each of 
you is entitled to his share." — " Let no one deceive himself." 
• Note XIV. — The pronominal adjectives either and neither 
relate to two things only ; when more are referred to, any and 
none should be used in stead of them : as, " Any of the three" 
— not, " Either of the three." — " None of the four" — not, " Nei- 
ther of the four." 

Note XV. — Participial adjectives retain the termination, but 
not the government, of participles ; when, therefore, they are 
followed by the objective case, a preposition must be inserted 
to govern it : as, " The man who is most sparing of his words, 
is generally most deserving of attention." 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE IV. 

Examples under Note 1. 

Those sort of people you will find to be troublesome. 

[Not proper, because the adjective those is in the plural number, and does 
not agree with its noun sort, which is singular. But, according to Note 1st 
under Rule 4th, " Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, must agree with 
their nouns in number." Therefore, those should be that; thus, That sort 
of people you will find to be troublesome.] 

Things of these sort are easily understood. 
Who broke that tongs 1 
Where did I drop this scissors? 
Bring out that oats. 
Extinguish that embers. 

12 



■ 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I disregard this minutiae. 

Those kind of injuries we need not fear. 

What was the height of those gallows which Haman erected ? 

Under Note 2, 
We rode about ten mile an hour. 
'Tis for a thousand pound. — Cowper. 
How deep is the water ? About six fathom. 
The lot is twenty-five foot wide. 
I have bought eight load of wood. 

Under Note 3. 
Industry is one mean of obtaining competence. 
Scholasticus sought opportunities to display his learning ; and, 

by these means, rendered himself ridiculous. 
Caled was remarkable for his modesty, docility, and ingenuity ; 

and by this means, he acquired both knowledge and fame. 

Under Note 4. 
He chose the latter of these three. 
Trissyllables are often accented on the former syllable. 
Which are the two more remarkable isthmuses in the world ? 

Under Note 5. 
The Scriptures are more valuable than any writings. 
The Russian empire is more extensive than any government 

in the world. 
Israel loved Joseph more than all his children, because he was 

the son of his old age. — Gen. xxxvii. 3. 

Under Note 6. 
Of all other ill habits idleness is the most incorrigible. 
Eve was the fairest of all her daughters. 
Hope is the most constant of all the other passions. 

Under Note 7. 

That opinion is too universal to be easily corrected. 

Virtue confers the supremest dignity upon man. 

The tongue is like a race-horse : the lesser weight it carries, 
the faster it runs. 

A more healthier place cannot be found. 

The best and the most wisest men often meet with discourage- 
ments. 

Under Note 8. 

He showed us a more agreeable and easier way. 
This was the most convincing and plainest argument. 
Some of the most moderate and wisest of the senators. 



SYNTAX. ADJECTIVES. 135 

This is an honourable and ancient fraternity. 

There vice shall meet an irrevocable and fatal doom. 

Under Note 9. 

He is a young industrious man. 

She has a new elegant house. 

The two first classes have read. 

The oldest two sons have removed to the westward. 

England had not seen such an other king. — Goldsmith. 

Under Note 10. 

She reads well and writes neat. 

He was extreme prodigal. 

They went, conformable to their engagement. 

He speaks very fluent, and reasons justly. 

The deepest streams run the most silent. 

These appear to be finished the neatest. 

He was scarce gone when you arrived. 

I am exceeding sorry to hear of your misfortunes. 

The work was uncommon well executed. 

This is not such a large cargo as the last. 

Thou knowst what a good horse mine is. 

I cannot think so mean of him. 

He acted much wiser than the others. 

Under Note 11. 

I bought them books at a very low price. 

Go and tell them boys to be still. 

I have several copies : thou art welcome to them two. 

Which of them three men is the most useful ? 

Under Note 12. 

Hope is as strong an incentive to action, as fear : this is the an 

ticipation of good, that of evil. 
The poor want some advantages which the rich enjoy; but we 
should not therefore account those happy, and these miserable. 
Memory and forecast just returns engage, 
This pointing back to youth, that on to age. 

Under Note 13. 

Let each of them be heard in their turn. 

On the Lord's day every one of us Christians keep the sab- 
bath. — Trenceus. 
Are either of these men known ? 
No : neither of them have any connexions here. 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Under Note 14. 
Did either of the company stop to assist you ? 
Here are six ; but neither of them will answer. 

Under Note 15. 

Some crimes are thought deserving death. 

Rudeness of speech is very unbecoming a gentleman. 

To eat with unwashen hands was disgusting a Jew. 
Leave then thy joys, unsuiting such an age, 
To a fresh comer, and resign the stage. — Dryden. 

RULE V.— PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun 
or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and 
gender: as, "This is the friend of whom /spoke; he has 
just arrived." — "This is the book which I bought; it is 
an excellent work." — " Ye, therefore, who love mercy, 
teach your sons to love it too." — Cowper. 

EXCEPTION FIRST. 

When a pronoun stands for some person or thing indefinite, or unknown 
to the speaker, this rule is not strictly applicable; because the person, 
number, and gender, are rather assumed than regulated by an antecedent: 
as, "I do not care wlvo knows it." — Steele. " Who touched me'* Tell me 
who it was." 

EXCEPTION SECOND. 

The neuter pronoun it may be applied to a young child, or to other crea- 
tures masculine or feminine by nature, when they are not obviously distin- 
guishable with regard to sex; as, "Which is the real friend to the child, 
the person who gives it the sweetmeats, or the person who, considering 
only its health, resists its importunities'?" — Opie. "He loads the animal, 
he is showing me, with so many trappings and collars, that I cannot dis- 
tinctly view it." — Murray. " The nightingale sings most sweetly when it 
sings in the night." — Bucke. 

EXCEPTION THIRD. 

The pronoun it is often used without a definite reference to any antece- 
dent, and is sometimes a mere expletive ; as, " Whether she grapple it 
with the pride of philosophy." — Chalmers. 
" Come, and trip it as you go 
On the light fantastic toe." — Milton. 

EXCEPTION FOURTH. 

A singular antecedent with the adjective many, sometimes admits a plu- 
ral pronoun, but never in the same clause ; as, 

" In Hawick twinkled many a light, 
Behind him soon they set in night." — W. Scott, 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE V. 
Obs. 1. — The pronoun we is used by the speaker to represent himself 



SYNTAX. PRONOUNS. 137 

and others, and is therefore plural. But it is sometimes used, by a sort of 
fiction, in stead of the singular, to intimate that the speaker is not alone in 
his opinions. Monarchs sometimes join it to a singular noun ; as, " We 
Alexander, Autocrat of all the Russias." They also employ the compound 
ourself, which is not used by other people. 

Obs. 2. — The pronoun you, though originally and properly plural, is 
now generally applied alike to one person or to more. [See Obs. 2d, 
page 56.] This usage, however it may seem to involve a solecism, is es- 
tablished by that authority against which the mere grammarian has 
scarcely a right to remonstrate. We do not, however, think it necessary 
or advisable, to encumber the conjugations, as some have done, by intro- 
ducing this pronoun and the corresponding form of the verb, as singular. 
It is manifestly better to say that the plural is used for the singular, by the 
figure enallage. This change has introduced the compound yourself, which 
is used in stead of thyself. 

Obs. 3. — The general usage of the French is like that of the English, 
you for thou; but Spanish, Portuguese, and German politeness requires 
that the third person be substituted for the second. And, when they 
would be very courteous, the Germans use also the plural for the singular, 
as they for thou. Thus they have a fourfold method of addressing a person . 
as, they, denoting the highest degree of respect ; he, a less degree ; you, a 
degree still less ; and thau, none at all, or absolute reproach. Yet, even 
among them, the last is used as a term of endearment to children, and of 
veneration to God ! 

Obs. 4. — Such perversions of the original and proper use of language, 
are doubtless matters of considerable moment. These changes in the use 
of the pronouns being evidently a sort of complimentary fictions, some have 
made it a matter of conscience to abstain from them, and have published 
their reasons for so doing. But the moral objections which may lie against 
such or any other applications of words, do not come within the gramma- 
rian's province. Let every one consider for himself the moral bearing of 
what he utters. [See Matthew, xii. 36 and 37.] 

Obs. 5. — When a pronoun represents the name of an inanimate object 
personified, it agrees with its antecedent in the figurative, and not in the 
literal sense; [See the figure Syllepsis, in part iv.] as, 

" Penance dreams her life away." — Rogers. 

u Grim Darkness furls his leaden shroud." — Id. 

Obs. 6. — When the antecedent is applied metaphorically, the pronoun 
agrees with it in its literal, and not in its figurative sense ; as, " Pitt was the 
pillar which upheld the state." — " The monarch of mountains rears his 
snowy head." [See Figures, in part iv.] 

Obs. 7. — When the antecedent is put by metonymy for a noun of diifer- 
ent properties, the pronoun sometimes agrees with it in the figurative, and 
sometimes in the literal sense ; as, 

" The wolf, who [that] from the nightly fold, 
Fierce drags the bleating prey, ne'er drunk her milk, 
Nor wore her warming fleece." — Thomson. 

11 That each may fill the circle mark'd by Heaven, 
Who sees with equal eye, as God of all, 
A hero perish or a sparrow fall." — Pope. 

11 And heaven beholds its hmge in his breast." — 7c?. 

Obs. 8. — When the antecedent is put by synecdoche for more or less than 
it literally signifies, the pronoun agrees with it in the figurative, and not in 
the literal sense ; as, 

12* 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"A dauntless soul erect, who smiled on death." — TViomson. 

" But, to the generous still improving mind, 
That gives the hopeless heart to sing for joy, 
To him the long review of ordered life 
Is inward rapture only to be felt." — Id. 

Obs. 9. — Pronouns usually follow the words which they represent; but. 
this order is sometimes reversed: as, " Whom the cap fits, let him put it on." 
— "Hark! they whisper; angels say ," &c. 

Obs. 10. — A pronoun sometimes represents a 'phrase or sentence; and in 
this case, the pronoun is always in the third person singular neuter : as, 
"She is very handsome; and she has the misfortune to know it." — "Yet 
men can go on to vilify or disregard Christianity ; which is to talk and act as 
if they had a demonstration of its falsehood." — Bp. Butler. 

Obs. 11. — When a pronoun follows two words, having a neuter verb be- 
tween them, and both referring to the same thing, it may represent either of 
them, but not with the same meaning; as, 1. "I am the man who command:" 
here, who command belongs to the subject 7, and the meaning is, "I who 
command, am the man." (The latter expression places the relative nearer 
to its antecedent, and is therefore preferable.) 2. "lam the man who com- 
mands :" here, who commands belongs to the predicate man, and the mean- 
ing is, "I am the commander." 

Obs. 12. — After the expletive it, which may be employed to introduce a 
noun or pronoun of any person, number, or gender, the above-mentioned 
distinction is generally disregarded : and the relative is made to agree with 
the latter word : as, " It is not I that do it." The propriety of this construc- 
tion is questionable. 

Obs. 13. — The pronoun it frequently refers to something mentioned in 
the subsequent part of the sentence. This pronoun is a necessary expletive 
at the commencement of a sentence in which the verb is followed by a 
clause which, by a transposition, may be made the subject of the verb ; as, 
"It is impossible to please every one" — "It was requisite that the papers 
should be sent." 

Oes. 14. — Relative and interrogative pronouns are placed at or near 
the beginning of their own clauses ; and the learner must observe that, 
through all their cases, they almost invariably retain this situation in the 
sentence, and are often found before their verbs when the order of construc- 
tion would reverse this arrangement: as, "He who preserves me, to whom 
I owe my being, whose I am, and whom I serve, is eternal." — Mur- 
ray. "Who can tell us who they are V — Pope. " He whom you seek." — 
Lowth. 

Obs. 15. — Every relative pronoun, being the representative of some 
antecedent word or phrase, derives from this relation its person, number, 
and gender, but not its case. By taking an other relation of case, it helps 
to form an other clause; and, by retaining the essential meaning of its 
antecedent, serves to connect this clause to that in which the antecedent 
is found. Relatives, therefore, cannot be used in an independent simple 
sentence, nor with a subjunctive verb; but, like other connectives, they 
belong at the head of a clause in a compound sentence, and they exclude 
conjunctions, except when two such clauses are to be joined together : as, 
" Blessed is the man, who feareth the Lord, and who keepeth his command- 
ments." 

Obs. 16. — The special rules commonly given by the grammarians, for 
the construction of relatives, are both unnecessary and faulty. It usually 
takes two rules to parse a pronoun ; one for its agreement with the noun 
or nouns which it represents, and the other for its case. But neither 
cslatives nor interrogatives require any special rules for the construction 



SYNTAX.— PRONOUNS. 1 39 

of their cases, because the general rules for the cases apply to pronouns as 
well as to nouns. And both relatives and interrogatives generally admit 
every construction common to nouns, except apposition. Let the learner 
parse the following examples : 

1. Nominatives by Rule 2d; " I who write — Thou who writest — He who 
writes — the animal which runs." — Dr. Adam. " He that sparcth his rod, 
hateth his son." — Solomon. "He who does any thing which he knows {» 
wrong, is a sinner." — " Wliat will become of us without religion T' — Blair. 
" Here I determined to wait the hand of death ; which I hope, when at last 
it comes, will fall lightly upon me." — Dr. Johnson. " What is sudden and 
unaccountable serves to confound." — Crabb. " They only are wise who are 
wise to salvation." — Goodwin. 

2. Nominatives by Rule 2\st; " Wlw art thou V — " What were wel" — 
Bible. " Do not tell them wlw I am." — " Let him be who he may, he is not 
the honest fellow that he seemed." — " The general conduct of mankind is 
neither what it was designed, nor what it ought to be." 

3. Nominatives absolute by Rule 25th; " There are certain bounds to im- 
prudence and misbehaviour, which being transgressed, there remains no 
place for repentance in the natural course of things." — Bp. Butler. This 
construction of the relative is a Latinism, and very seldom used by the best 
English writers. 

4. Posscssives by Rule 19th; " The chief man of the island, whose name 
was Publius." — Acts. "Despair, a cruel tyrant, from whose prisons none 
can escape." — Dr. Johnson. " To contemplate on Him whose yoke is easy 
and whose burden is light," — Steele. 

5. Objectives by Rule 20th; " Those whom she persuaded." — Dr. Johnson. 
"The cloak that I left at Troas." — St. Paul. " By the things which he suf- 
fered." — Id. "A man whom there is reason to suspect" — " What are we to 
do'?" — Burke. " Love refuses nothing thatlove sends." — Gurnall. " Whom- 
soever you please to appoint." — Lowth. " Whatsoever he doeth, shall prosper." 
— Bible. " What we are afraid to do before men, we should be afraid to 
think before God." — Sibs. " Shall I hide from Abraham that thing which 
I do I" — Gen. xviii. 32. " Shall I hide from Abraham what I doT' — "Call 
imperfection what thou fanciest such." — Pope. 

6. Objectives by Rule 21st; " He is not the man that I took him to be." 
— " Whom did you suppose me to be V 1 — "Let the lad become what you 
wish him to be." 

7. Objectives by Rule 22d ; " To whom shall we go V— Bible. "The laws 
by which the world is governed, are general." — Butler. " Whom he looks 
upon as his defender." — Addison. " That secret heaviness of heart which un- 
thinking men are subject to." — Id. " I cannot but think the loss of such 
talents as the man of wJwm I am speaking was master of, a more melan- 
choly instance." — Steele. 

Obs. 17. — In familiar language, the relative in the objective case is fre- 
quently understood; as, " Here is the letter [which] I received." The omis- 
sion of the relative in the nominative case, is inelegant ; as, " This is the 
worst thing [that] could happen." The latter ellipsis sometimes occurs in 
poetry; as, 

" In this, 'tis God — directs, in that 'tis man." — Pope. 

Obs. 18. — The antecedent is sometimes suppressed, especially in poetry; 
as, " How shall I curse [him or them] whom God hath not cursed." — Numb. 
xxiii. 8. 

[He] " Who lives to nature, rarely can be poor; 

[He] Who lives to fancy, never can be rich." — Young. 

Obs. 19. — What is sometimes used adverbially; as, "Though I for- 
bear, wliat am I eased?" — Job, xvi. 6, — that is, how much? or wherurif 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"The enemy having his country wasted, what by himself and what by 
the soldiers, findeth succour in no place." — Spenser. Here what means 
partly, — " wasted partly by himself and partly by the soldiers." 
Obs. 20. — What is sometimes used as a mere interjection ; as, 

" What! this a sleeve? 'tis like a demi-cannon." — Shakspeare. 
" What I can you lull the winged winds asleep T —Campbell. 

NOTES TO RULE V. 

Note I. — A pronoun should not be introduced in connexion 
with words that belong more properly to the antecedent, or to 
an other pronoun ; as, 

" My banks they are furnished with bees." — Shenstone. 

Obs. — This is only an example of pleonasm; which is allowable and fre- 
quent in animated discourse, but inelegant in any other. [See Pleonasm, in 

PART IV.] 

Note II. — A change of number in the second person, is in- 
elegant and improper ; as, " You wept, and I for thee. 11 

Obs. — Poets have sometimes adopted this solecism, to avoid the harsh- 
ness of the verb in the second person singular ; as, 

" As, in that lov'd Athenian bower, 
You learn 1 d an all commanding power, 
Thy mimic soul, O nymph endear'd ! 
Can well recall what then it heard." — Collins. 

Note III. — The relative who is applied only to persons, and 
to animals personified ; and which, to brute animals and inani- 
mate things : as, " The judge who presided" — " The old crab 
who advised the young one" — " The horse which ran" — " The 
book which was given me." 

Obs. — Which, as well as who, was formerly applied to persons; as, "Our 
Father which art in heaven." — Bible. It may still be applied to a young 
child; as, "The child which died." — Or even to adults, when they are 
spoken of without regard to a distinct personality or identity; as, " Which 
of you will gol" — " Crabb knoweth not which is which, himself or his paro- 
dist." — Leigh Hunt. 

Note IV. — Nouns of multitude, unless they express persons 
directly as such, should not be represented by the relative who : 
to say, " The family whom I visited," would hardly be proper ; 
that would here be better. When such nouns are strictly of 
the neuter gender, which may represent them ; as, " The com- 
mittees which were appointed." . 

Note V. — A proper name taken merely as a name, or an 
appellative taken in any sense not strictly personal, must be 
represented by which, and not by who ; as, " Herod — which is 
but another name for cruelty." — " In every prescription of 
duty, God proposeth himself as a reward er ; which he is only 
to those that .please him." — Dr. J. Owen. 

Note VI. — The relative that may be applied either to per- 



SYNTAX. PRONOUNS. 141 

sons or to things. In the following- cases it is generally pre- 
ferable to who or which, unless it be necessary to use a prepo- 
sition before the relative : — 1. After an ac^ective of the super- 
lative degree ; as, " He was the first that came." — 2. After the 
adjective same; as, " This is the same person that I met before." 
— 3. After the antecedent who; as, " Who that has common 
sense, can think so V\ — 4. After* a joint reference to persons 
and things ; as, " He spoke of the men and things that he had 
seen." — 5. After an unlimited antecedent, which the relative 
and its verb are to restrict ; as, " Thoughts that breathe, and 
words that burn." — 6. After an antecedent introduced by the 
expletive it; as, " It is you that command." — " It was I that 
did it." — 7. And, in general, where the propriety of who or 
which is doubtful ; as, " The little child that was placed in the 
midst." 

Note VII. — When several relative clauses come in succes- 
sion, and have a similar dependence in respect to the antece- 
dent, the same pronoun must be employed in each ; as, " O 
thou who art, and who wast, and who art to come !" — " And 
they shall spread them before the sun, and the moon, and all 
the host of heaven, who?n they have loved, and whom they have 
served, and after whom they have walked, and whom they have 
sought, and whom they have worshipped." — Jer. viii. 2. 

Note VIII. — The relative, and the preposition governing it, 
should not be omitted, when they are necessary to give connex- 
ion to the sentence ; as, " He is still in the situation [in which} 
you saw him." 

Note IX. — An adverb should not be used where a preposi- 
tion and a relative pronoun would better express the relation of 
the terms ; as, " A cause where [for in which] justice is so much 
concerned." 

Note X. — Where a pronoun or a pronominal adjective will 

not express the meaning clearly, the noun must be repeated, or 

inserted in stead of it. Example : " We see the beautiful 

' variety of colour in the rainbow, and are led to consider the 

cause of it" — [that variety.] 

Note XL — To prevent ambiguity or obscurity, the relative 
should be placed as near as possible to the antecedent. The 
following sentence is therefore faulty : " He is like a beast of 
prey, that is void of compassion." Better : " He that is void of 
compassion, is like a beast of prey." 

Note XII. — The pronoun what should never be used in 
stead of the conjunction that ; as, " He will not believe but 
what I am to blame." What should be that. 

Note XIII. — A pronoun should not be used to represent an 
adjective ; because it can neither express a concrete quality as 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

such, nor convert it properly into an abstract. Example : " Be 
attentive ; without which you will learn nothing." Better : 
u Be attentive ; for yithout attention you will learn nothing." 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE V. 

No person should be censured for being careful of their rep- 
utation. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun their is of the plural number, and 
does not correctly represent its antecedent noun person, which is of the 
third person, singular, masculine. But according to Rule 5th, " A pro- 
noun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it 
represents, in person, number, and gender." Therefore, their should be 
his ; thus, No person should be censured for being careful of his reputa- 
tion.] 

Every one must judge of their own feelings. — Byron. 

Can any person, on their entrance into the world, be fully se- 
cure that they shall not be deceived % 

He cannot see one in prosperity without envying them. . 

I gave him oats, but he would not eat it. 

Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them on Jacob. 

Take up the tongs, and put it in its place. 

Let each esteem others better than themselves. 

A person may make themselves happy without riches. 

Every man should try to provide for themselves. 

The mind of man should not be left without something on 
which to employ his energies. 

An idler is a watch that wants both hands, 
As useless if he goes, as when he stands. 

Tinder Note 1. 

Many words they darken speech. 

These praises he then seemed inclined to retract them. 

These people they are all very ignorant. 

Asa his heart was perfect with the Lord. 

Who, in stead of going about doing good, they are perpetually 
intent upon doing mischief. — TUlotson. 

Whom ye delivered up, and denied him in the presence of Pon- 
tius Pilate. — Acts, iii. 13. 

Whom, when they had washed, they laid her in an upper 
chamber. — Acts, ix. 37. 

What I have mentioned, there are witnesses of the fact. 

What he said, he is now sorry for it. 

The empress, approving these conditions, she immediately rati- 
fied them. 

This incident, though it appears improbable, yet I cannot doubt 
the author's veracity. 



SYNTAX. — rPRONOUNS. 149 

Under Note 2. 

Thou art my father's brother, else would 1 reprove you. 
Your weakness is excusable, but thy wickedness is not. 
Now, my son, I forgive thee, and freely pardon your fault. 

You draw the inspiring breath of ancient song, 
Till nobly rises emulous thy own. — Thomson. 

Under Note 3. 
This is the horse whom my father imported. 
Those are the birds whom we call gregarious. 
He has two brothers, one of which I am acquainted with. 
What was that creature whom Job called leviathan ? 
Those which desire to be safe, should be careful to do that 

which is right. 
A butterfly which thought himself an accomplished traveller, 

happened to light upon a bee-hive. 
There was a certain householder which planted a vineyard. 

Under Note 4. 

He instructed and fed the crowds who surrounded him. 

The court, who has great influence upon the public manners, 

ought to be very exemplary. 
The wild tribes who inhabit the wilderness, contemplate the 

ocean with astonishment, and gaze upon the starry heavens 

with delight. 

Under Note 5. 

Judas (who is now an other name for treachery) betrayed his 

master with a kiss. 
He alluded to Phalaris, — who is a name for all that is cruel. 

Under Note 6. 

He was the first who entered. 

He was the drollest fellow whom I ever saw. 

This is the same man whom we saw before. 

Who is she who comes clothed in a robe of green ? 

The wife and fortune whom he gained, did not aid him. 

Men who are avaricious, never have enough. 

All which I have, is thine. 

Was it thou, or the wind, who shut the door % 

It was not I who shut it. 

The babe who was in the cradle, appeared to be healthy. ] 

Under Note 7. 

He is a man that knows what belongs to good manners, and 
who will not do a dishonourable act. 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The friend who was here, and that entertained us so much, will 

never be able to visit us again. 
The curiosities which he has brought home, and that we shall 

have the pleasure of seeing, are said to be very rare. 

Under Note 8. 

Observe them in the order they stand. 
We proceeded immediately to the place we were directed. 
My companion remained a week in the state I left him. 
The way I do it, is this. 

Under Note 9. 

Remember the condition whence thou art rescued. 

[ know of no rule how it may be done. 

He drew up a petition, where he too freely represented his own 

merits. 
The hour is hastening, when whatever praise or censure I have 

acquired, will be remembered with equal indifference. 

Under Note 10. 
Many will acknowledge the excellence of religion, who cannot 

tell wherein it consists. 
Every difference of opinion is not that of principle. 
Next to the knowledge of God, this of ourselves seems most 

worthy of our endeavour. 

Under Note 11. 

Thou art thyself the man that committed the act, who hast thus 

condemned it. 
There is a certain majesty in simplicity, which is far above the 

quaintness of wit. 
Thou hast no right to judge who art a party concerned. 
It is impossible for such men as those, ever to determine this 

question, who are likely to get the appointment. 
There are millions of people in the empire of China, whose 

support is derived almost entirely from rice. 

Under Note 12. 
I had no idea but what the story was true. 
The post-boy is not so weary but what he can whistle. 
He had no intimation but what the men were honest. 

Under Note 13. 
Some men are too ignorant to be humble ; without which there 

can be no docility. — Berkley. 
Judas declared him innocent ; which he could not be, had he 

in any respect deceived the disciples. — Porteus. 



SYNTAX.— PRONOUNS: 145 

Be accurate in all you say or do , for it is important in all the 
concerns of life. 

Every law supposes the transgressor to be wicked ; which in- 
deed he is, if the law is just. 

RULE YL— PRONOUNS. 

When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the 
idea of plurality, the Pronoun must agree with it in the 
plural number ; as, " The council were divided in their 



OBSERVATION ON RULE VI. 

Most collective nouns of the neuter gender, may take the regular phtral 
form, and be represented by a pronoun in the third person, plural, neuter j 
as, ,: The nations will enforce their laws." This construction comes under 
Rule 5th. To Rule 6th there are no exceptions. 

NOTE TO RULE VI. 

A collective noun conveying- the idea of unity, requires a 
pronoun in the third person, singular, neuter, agreeably to Rule 
5th ; as, " The nation will enforce its laws." 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE VI. 

The jury will be confined until it agrees on a verdict. 

[Net proper, because the pronoun it is of the singular number, and 
does not correctly represent its antecedent jury, which is a collective 
noun, conveying the idea of plurality. But, according to Rule 6th, 
" W neja the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, 
the pronoun must agree with it in the plural number." Therefore, it 
should be they; thus, The jury will be confined till they agree on a 
verdict.] 

In youth, the multitude eagerly pursue pleasure, as if it were 

its chief good. 
The council were not unanimous, and it separated without 

coming to any determination. 
The committee were divided in sentiment, and it referred the 

business to the general meeting. 
There happened to the army a very strange accident, which 

put it in great consternation. 
The enemy were not able to support the charge, and he dis 

persed and fled. 
The defendant's counsel had a difficult task imposed on it. 
The board of health publish its proceedings. 
i saw all the species thus delivered from its sorrows. 

Under Note to Rule 6th. 

I saw the whole species thus delivered from their sorrows. 
This court is famous for the justice of their decisions. 

13 



li . 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The convention then resolved themselves into a committee of 

the whole. 
The crowd was so great that the judges with difficulty made 

their way through them. 

RULE VIL— PRONOUNS. 

When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents connect- 
ed by and, it must agree with them in the plural num- 
ber : as, " James and John will favour us with their com- 
pany/' 

EXCEPTION FIRST. 

When two or more antecedents connected by and, serve merely to 
describe one person or thing ; they are in apposition, and do not require 
a plural pronoun : as, " This great philosopher and statesman continued in 
public life till his eighty-second year." — "The same Spirit, light, and life, 
"which enlighteneth, also sanctifieth, and there is not an other." — Pen- 
ington. 

EXCEPTION SECOND. 

When two antecedents connected by and, are emphatically distinguished ; 
they belong to different propositions, and (if singular) do not require a plu- 
ral pronoun : as, " The butler, and not the baker, was restored to his office." 
— " The good man, and the sinner too, shall have his reward." — " Truth, and 
truth only, is worth seeking for its own sake." 

EXCEPTION THIRD. 

When two or more antecedents connected by and, are preceded by the 
adjective each, every, or no ; they are taken separately, and do not require a 
plural pronoun : as, " Every plant and every tree produces others after its 
kind." — " It is the original cause of every reproach and distress which has at- 
tended the government." — Junius. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE VII. 

Obs. 1. — When the antecedents axe of different persons, the first person is 
preferred to the second, and the second to the third : as, " John, and thou, 
and I, are attached to our country." — " John and thou are attached to your 
country." 

Obs. 2. — The gender of pronouns, except in the third person singular, is 
distinguished only by their antecedents. In expressing that of a pronoun 
which has antecedents of different genders, the masculine should be prefer- 
red to the feminine, and the feminine to the neuter. 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE VII. 

Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his countenance. 

[Not proj>er, "because the pronoun itself is of the singular number, and 
does not correctly represent its two antecedents, discontent and sorrow, 
which are connected by and, and taken conjointly. But, according to Rule 
7th, " When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by and, it 
mur,t digxiT, with them in the plural number." Therefore, itself should be 
tiumidtwi i thus, Discontent and sorrow manifested themselves in his covin- 



SYNTAX.— -PRONOUNS. 147 

Your levity and heedlessness, if it continue, will prevent all 

substantial improvement. 
Poverty and obscurity wll oppress him only who esteems it 

oppressive. 
Good sense and refined policy are obvious to few, because it 

cannot be discovered but by a train of reflection. 
Avoid haughtiness of behaviour, and affectation of manners : it 

implies a want of solid merit. 
If love and unity continue, it will make you partakers of one 

an other's joy. 
Suffer not jealousy and distrust to enter : it will destroy, like a 

canker, every germ of friendship. 
Hatred and animosity are . inconsistent with Christian charity . 

guard, therefore, against the slightest indulgence of it. 
Every man is entitled to liberty of conscience, and freedom of 

opinion, if he does not pervert it to the injury of others. 

RULE VIII.— PRONOUNS. 

When a Pronoun has two or more singular antecedents 
connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the 
singular number : as, " James or John will favour us with 
his company." 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE VIII. 

Obs. 1. — When a pronoun has two or more plural antecedents connected 
by or or nor, it is of course plural, and agrees with them severally. To the 
foregoing rule, there are properly no exceptions. 

Obs. 2. — When antecedents of different persons, numbers, or genders, are 
connected by or or nor, they cannot be represented by a pronoun that is not 
applicable to each of them.. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate : 
" Either thou or Jam greatly mistaken in our judgement on this subject." — 
Murray's Key. But different pronouns may be so connected as to refer to 
such antecedents taken separately ; as, " By requiiing greater labour from 
such slave or slaves, than he or she or they are able to perform." — Prince's 
Digest. Or, if the gender only be different, the masculine may involve the 
feminine by implication ; as, " If a man smite the eye of his servant or the 
eye of his maid that it perish, he shall let him go free for his eye's sake." — 
Exodus, xxi. 26. 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE VIII. 

Neither wealth nor honour can secure the happiness of their 
votaries. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun their is of the plural number, and 
does not correctly represent its two antecedents wealth and honour, which 
are connected by nor, and taken disjunctively. But, according to Rule 8th, 
" When a pronoun has two or more singular antecedents connected by or 
or nor, it must agree with them in the singular number." Therefore, their 
should be Us ; thus, Neither wealth nor honour can secure the happiness of 
its votaries.] 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Neither Sarah, Ann, nor "Jane, has performed their task. 

One or the other must relinquish their claim. 

A man is not such a machine as a deck or a watch, which will 

move only as they are moved. 
Rye or barley, when they are scorched, may supply the place 

of coffee. 
A man may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well 

as read them in a description. 
Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of 

life, for they may be thy own lot. 

RULE IX.— VERBS. 

A Verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in per- 
son and number : as, "I know ; thou knowst, or knoioest ; 
he knows, or knoioeth? — "The bird flies; the birds flyP 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE IX. 

Obs. 1. — To this general rule for the verb, there are properly no excep- 
tions. The infinitive mood, having no relation to a nominative, is of course 
exempt from the agreement ; and all the special rules which follow, virtually 
accord with this. 

Obs. 2. — Every finite verb (that is, every verb not in the infinitive mood) 
must have some noun, pronoun, or phrase equivalent, known as the subject 
of the being, action, or passion; and with this subject the verb must agree 
in person and number. 

Obs. 3. — Different verbs always have different subjects, expressed or un- 
derstood ; except when two or more verbs are connected in the same con- 
struction, or when the same verb is repeated for the sake of emphasis. 

Obs. 4. — Verbs in the imperative mood, commonly agree with the pronoun 
thou, ye, or you, understood j as, " Do [thou] as thou list." — Shak. " Trust 
God and be doing, and leave the rest with him." — Dr. Sibs. 

Obs. 5. — The place of a verb ca,n have reference only to that of the subject 
with which it agrees, and that of the object which it governs ; this matter 
is therefore sufficiently explained in the observations under Rule 2d and 
Rule 20th. 

NOTES TO RULE IX. 

Note I.— The adjuncts of the nominative do not control its 
agreement with the verb : as, u Six months' interest was due."- — 
■" The propriety of these rules is evident." — " The mill, with all 
its appurtenances, was destroyed" 

Note II. — The infinitive mood, a phrase, or a sentence, is 
sometimes the subject to a verb : a subject of this kind, how- 
ever composed, if it is taken as one whole, requires a verb in 
the third person singnlar ; as, " To lie is base." — " To see the 
sun is pleasant." — " That you have violated the law, is evident." 
— u For what purpose they embarked, is not vet known." — " How 
far the change would contribute to his welfare, comes to be con- 
sidered." — Blair. 



SYNTAX. VERBS. 149 

Obs. 1. — The same meaning will be expressed, if the pronoun it be placed 
before the verb, and the infinitive, phrase, or sentence, after it; as, " It is 
base to lie." — " It is evident that you have violated the law." The construc- 
tion of the following sentences is rendered defective by the omission of the 
Sronoun: " Why do ye that which [it] is not lawful to do on the sabbath 
ays ?" — Luke, vi. 2. " The show-bread which [it] is not lawful to eat, but 
for the priests only." — Luke, vi. 4. 

Obs. 2. — When the infinitive mood is made the subject of a finite 
verb, it is used to express some action or state in the abstract; as, " To 
be contents his natural desire." — Pope. Here to be stands for simple 
existence. In connexion with the infinitive, a concrete quality may also 
be taken as an abstract; as, " To be good is to be happy." Here good and 
happy express the quality of goodness and the state of happiness, considered 
abstractly ; and therefore these adjectives do not relate to any particular 
noun. So also the passive infinitive, or a perfect participle taken in a pas- 
sive sense; as, " To be satisfied with a little is the greatest wisdom." — " To 
appear discouraged is the way to become so." Here the satis/action and the 
discouragement are considered abstractly, and without reference to any par- 
ticular person. 

Obs. 3. — W 7 hen the action or state is to be limited to a particular person 
or thing, the noun or pronoun may be introduced before the infinitive, by 
the preposition for ; as, " For a prince to be reduced by villany to my dis- 
tressful circumstances, is calamity enough." — Tr. Sallust. 

Note III. — A neuter verb between two nominatives should 
be made to agree with that which precedes it ; as, " Words 
are wind :" except when the terms are transposed, and the 
proper subject is put after the verb by question or hyperbaton ; 
as, " His pavilion were dark waters and thick clouds of the 
sky." — Bible. " Who art thou V' — lb. " Th-e wages of sin is 
deaths — lb. 

Note IV. — When the verb has different forms, that form 
should be adopted, which is the most consistent with present 
and reputable usage, in the style employed : thus, to say famil- 
iarly, " The clock hath stricken" — " Thou laughedst and talk- 
edst, when thou oughtest to have been silent," — " He readeth and 
writeth, but he doth not cipher," — would be no better, than to 
use don't, won't, can't, shan't, and didn't, in preaching. 

Note V. — Every finite verb not in the imperative mood, 
should have a separate nominative expressed ; as, " / came, I 
saw, I conquered:" except when the verb is repeated for the 
sake of emphasis, or connected to an other in the same con- 
struction ; as, 

" They bud, blow, wither, fall, and die. )} — Walls. 

. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE IX. 

You was kindly received. 

[Not proper, because the passive verb was received is of the singular num- 
ber, and does not agree with its nominative you, which is of the second per 
son, plural. But, according to Rule 9th, " A verb must agree with its sub- 
ject, or nominative, in person and number." Therefore, was received should 
be were received; thus, You were kindly received.] 

13* 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

We \vas disappointed. 

She dare not oppose it 

His pulse are too quick. 

Circumstances alter^ cases. 

He need not trouble himself. 

Twenty-four pence is two shillings. 

On one side was. beautiful meadows. 

He may pursue what studies he please. 

What have become of our cousins ? 

There was more impostors than one. 

What says his friends on this subject? 

Thou knows the urgency of the case. 

What avails good sentiments with a bad life % 

Has those books been sent to the school % 

There is many occasions for the exercise of patience. 

What sounds have each of the vowels % 

There were a great number of spectators. 

There are an abundance of treatises on this easy science. 

While ever and anon there falls 

Huge heaps of hoary moulder'd walls. — Dyer. 

He that trust in the Lord, will never be without a friend. 

Errors that originates in ignorance, is generally excusable. 

Be ye not as the horse, or as the mule, which have no under- 
standing. 

Not one of the authors who mentions this incident, is entitled to 
credit. 

The man and woman that was present, being strangers to him, 
wondered at his conduct. 

There necessarily follows from thence these plain and unques- 
tionable consequences. 

O thou, for ever present in my way, 
Who all my motives and my toils survey. 

Under Note 1. 

The derivation of these words are uncertain. 

Four years' interest were demanded. 

One added to nineteen, make twenty. 

The increase of orphans render the addition necessary. 

The road to virtue and happiness, are open to all. 

The ship, with all her crew, were lost. 

A ruund of vain and foolish pursuits, delight some folka 

Under Note 2. 

To obtain the praise of men, were their only object. 
To steal and then deny it, are a double sin. 



SYNTAX. VERBS. 151 

To copy and claim the writings of others, are plagiarism. 

To live soberly, righteously, and piously, are required of all 

men. 
That it is our duty to promote peace and harmony among men, 

admit of no dispute. 

Under Note 3. 

The reproofs of instruction is the way of life. 
A diphthong are two vowels joined in one syllable. 
So great an affliction to him was his wicked sons. 
What is the latitude and longitude of that island % 
He churlishly said to me, " Who is you ?" 

Under Note 4. 

1. For the Familiar Style. 

Was it thou that buildedst that house 1 

That boy writeth very elegantly. 

Couldest not thou write without blotting thy book ? 

Thinkest thou not it will rain to-day ? 

Doth not your cousin intend to visit you ? 

That boy hath torn my book. 

Was it thou that spreadest the hay ? 

W as it James or thou that didst let him in % 

He dareth not say a word. 

Thou stoodest in my way and hinderedst me. 

2. For the Solemn Style. 

The Lord has prepar'd his throne in the heavens ; and his king- 
dom rules over all. 

Thou answer'd them, O Lord our God : thou was a God that 
forgave them, though thou took vengeance of their inventions, 

Then thou spoke in vision to thy Holy One, and said — 

So then it is not of him that wills, nor of him that runs, but of 
God that shows mercy. 

Under Note 5. 

New-York, Fifthmonth 3d, 1823. 
Dear friend, Am sorry to hear of thy loss ; but hope it may be 
retrieved. Should be happy to render thee any assistance 
in my power. Shall call to see thee to-morrow' morning. 
Accept assurances of my regard. A. B. 

New- York, May 3d, P. M. 1823. 
Dear sir, Have just received the kind note favoured me with 
this morning ; and cannot forbear to express my gratitude to 
you. On further information, find have not lost so much as 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

at first supposed ; and believe shall still be able to meet all 
my engagements. Should, however, be happy to see you. 
Accept, dear sir, my most cordial thanks. C. D. 

Will martial flames forever fire thy mind, 

And never, never be to Heaven resign'd ? — Pope. 



RULE X.— VERBS. 



When the nominative is a collective noun conveying 
the idea of plurality, the Verb must agree with it in the 
plural number ; as, " The council were divided." 

OBSERVATION ON RULE X. 

To this rule there are no exceptions. Whenever the collective noun con- 
veys the idea of plurality without the form, the verb is to be parsed by Rule 
10th ; but if the nominative conveys the idea of unity or takes the plural 
form, the verb is to be parsed by Rule 9th. The only difficulty is, to deter- 
mine in what sense the noun should be taken. In modern usage, a plural 
verb is commonly adopted wherever it is admissible ; as, " The public are 
informed" — " The plaintiff's counsel are of opinion" — " The committee were 
instructed" 

NOTE TO RULE X. 

A collective noun conveying the idea of unity, requires a 
verb in the third person, singular ; and generally admits also 
the regular plural construction : as, u His army was defeated." 
u His armies were defeated.'' 1 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE X. 

The people rejoices in that which should cause sorrow. 

[Not proper, because the verb rejoices is of the singular number, and 
does not correctly agree with its nominative people, which is a collective 
noun conveying the idea of plurality. But according to Rule 10th, 
" When the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plu- 
rality, the verb must agree with it in the plural number." Therefore, 
rejoices should be rejoice; thus, The people rejoice in that which should 
cause sorrow. 

The nobility was assured that he would not interpose. 

The committee has attended to their appointment. 

Mankind was not united by the bonds of civil society. 

The majority was disposed to adopt the measure. 

The peasantry goes barefoot, and the middle sort makes use of 

wooden shoes. 
All the world is spectators of your conduct. 
Blessed is the people that know the joyful sound. 

Under Note to Rule 10th. 
The church have no power to inflict corporal punishments. 
The fleet were seen sailing up the channel. 



. 



SYNTAX. VERBS. 153 

The meeting have established several salutary regulations. 
The regiment consist of a thousand men. 
A detachment of two hundred men were immediately sent 
Every auditory take this in good part. 
In this business, the house of commons were of no weight. 
Are the senate considered as a separate body ? 
There are a flock of birds. 

No society are chargeable with the disapproved conduct of par- 
ticular members. 

RULE XI.— VERBS. 

When a Verb has two or more nominatives connected 
by and, it must agree with them in the plural number : as ? 

" Judges and senates have been bought for gold, 
Esteem and love were never to be sold." — Pope. 

EXCEPTION FIRST. 

When two or more nominatives connected by and, serve merely to de- 
scribe one person or thing ; they are in apposition, and do not require a plu- 
ral verb : as, " This philosopher and poet was banished from his country." — 
" Toll, tribute, and custom, was paid unto them." — Ezra, iv. 20. 

" Whose icy current and compulsive course 
Ne'er feels retiring ebb, but keeps due on." — Shakspeare, 

EXCEPTION SECOND. 

When two nominatives connected by and, are emphatically distinguished ; 
they belong to different propositions, and (if singular) do not require a plu- 
ral verb : as, " Ambition, and not the safety of the state, was concerned."— 
Gold-smith. 

u Ay, and no too, was no good divinity." — Shakspeare. 
" Love, and love only, is the loan for love." — Young. 

EXCEPTION THIRD. 

When two or more nominatives connected by and, are preceded by the 
adjective each, every, or no; they are taken separately, and do not re- 
quire a plural verb : as, " When no part of their substance, and no one of 
their properties, is the same." — Butler. " Every limb and feature appears 
with Us respective grace." — Steele. 

EXCEPTION FOURTH. 

When the verb separates its nominatives, it agrees with that which pre- 
cedes it, and is understood to the rest : as, 



-Forth in the pleasing spring, 

Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness, and love."— Thomson. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XI. 
Obs. 1. — The conjunction is sometimes understood; as, 
" Art, empire, earth itself, to change are doomed." — Beattie. 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 2. — In Greek and Latin, the verb frequently agrees with the 
nearest nominative, and is understood to the rest ; and this construction is 
sometimes improperly imitated in English: as, Nwt Si MENEI mans, i\ms, 
aydirrj, ra rpla ravra. — Nuncverd manet fides, spes, charitas; triahsec. — Now 
abideth faith, hope, charity; these three. — 1 Cor. xiii. 13. 

Obs. 3. — When the nominatives are of different persons, the verb agrees 
with the first person in preference to the second, and with the second in 
preference to the third ; for thou and / (or he, thou, and /) are equivalent to 
we; and thou and he are equivalent to you: as, "Why speakest thou any 
more of thy matters ? I have said, thou and Ziba divide the land." — 2 Sam. 
xix. 29. i. e. "divide ye the land." 

NOTES TO RULE XI. 

Note I. — When two subjects or antecedents are connected, 
one of which is taken affirmatively, and the other negatively, 
they belong to different propositions ; and the verb or pronoun 
must agree with the affirmative subject, and be understood to 
the other : as, " Diligent industry, and not mean savings, pro- 
duces honourable competence." — " Not a loud voice, but strong 
proofs bring conviction." 

Note II. — When two subjects or antecedents are connected 
by as-well-as, but, or save, they belong to different propositions ; 
and, (unless one of them is preceded by the adverb not,) the 
verb and pronoun must agree with the former and be under- 
stood to the latter : as, " Veracity, as well as justice, is to be our 
rule of life." — Butler. " Nothing, but wailings, was heard? — 
" None, but thou, can aid us." — " No mortal man, save he, &c. 
had e'er survived to say he saw." — W. Scott. 

Obs. 1. — The conjunction as, when it connects nominatives that are in 
apposition, is commonly placed at the beginning of the sentence, so that the 
verb agrees with its proper nominative following the explanatory word ; 
thus, " As a poet, he holds a high rank." — Murray. But when this conjunc- 
tion denotes a comparison between two nominatives, there must be two 
verbs expressed or understood, each agreeing with its own subject; as, 
" Such writers as he [is] have no reputation among the learned." 

Obs. 2. — Some grammarians say that but and save, when they denote ex- 
ception, should govern the objective case, as prepositions ; but this is not 
according to the usage of the best authors. The objective case of nouns 
being like the nominative, the point can be proved only by the pronouns ; 
as, " There is none but he alone." — Perkins's Theology, 1G08. " There is 
none other but he" — Mark, xii. 32. (This text is good authority as regards 
the case, though it is incorrect in an other respect : it should have been, 
" There is none but he," or, " There is no other than he") "No man hath 
ascended up to heaven, but lie that came down from heaven." — John, iii. 13. 
11 Not that any man hath seen the Father, save he which is of God." — John, 
vi. 46. " Few can, save he and 1." — Byron's Werner. " There is none 
justified, but he that is in measure sanctified." — Penington. Save, as a con- 
junction, is nearly obsolete. In Rev. ii. 17, we read, "Which no man 
knoweth, saving he that receiveth it." 

Note III. — When two or more subjects or antecedents are 



SYNTAX. VERBS. 155 

preceded by the adjective each, every, or no, they are taken 
separately, and require a verb and. pronoun in the singular 
number: as, 

u And every sense, and every heart is joy." — Thomson. 
" Each beast, each insect, happy in its own." — Pope. 

Note IV. — When words are to be taken conjointly as sub- 
jects or antecedents, the conjunction and must connect them. 

Obs. — In Latin, cum with an ablative, sometimes has the force of the con- ■ 
junction et with a nominative ; as, " Dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur." 
— Livy. In imitation of this construction, some English writers have sub- 
stituted with for and, and varied the verb accordingly ; as, " A long course 
of time, with a variety of accidents and circumstances, are requisite to 
produce these revolutions." — Hume. But, as the preposition makes its ob- 
ject only an adjunct of the preceding noun, this construction cannot be 
justified. 

Note V. — Two or more distinct subject phrases connected by 

and, require a plural verb ; as, " To be wise in our own eyes, to be 

I wise in the opinion of the world, and to be wise in the sight of our 

Creator, are three things so very different, as rarely to coincide." 

— Blair. 

. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XI. 

Industry and frugality leads to wealth. 

[Not proper, because the verb leads is in the singular number, and does 
not correctly agree with its two nominatives, industry and frugality, which 
j are connected by and, and taken conjointly. But, according to Rule 11th, 
" When a verb has two or more nominatives connected by and, it must agree 
with them in the plural number." Therefore, leads should be lead; thus, 
Industry and frugality lead to wealth.] 



Temperance and exercise preserves health. 

Time and tide waits for no man. 

My love and affection towards thee remains unaltered 

Wealth, honour, and happiness, forsakes the indolent. 

My flesh and my heart faileth. 

In all his works, there is sprightliness and vigour. 

Elizabeth's meekness and humility was extraordinary. 

In unity consists the security and welfare of every society. 

High pleasures and luxurious living begets satiety. 

Much does human pride and folly require correction. 

Our conversation and intercourse with the world is, in several 

respects, an education for vice. 
Occasional release from toil, and indulgence of ease, is what 

nature demands, and virtue allows. 
What generosity, and what humanity, was then displayed 1 

— What thou desir'stj 

And what thou fearst, alike destroys all hope. 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Under Note 1. 



Wisdom, arid not wealth, procure esteem. 

Prudence, and not pomp, are the basis of his fame. 

Not fear, but labour have overcome him. 

The decency, and not the abstinence, make the difference. 

Not her beauty, but her talents attracts attention. 

It is her talents, and not her beauty, that attracts attention. 

It is her beauty, and not her talents, that attract attention. 

Under Note 2. 

His constitution, as well as his fortune, require care. 
Their religion, as well as their manners, were ridiculed. 
Every one, but thou, hadst been legally discharged. 
The buyer, as well as the seller, render themselves liable. 
All songsters, save the hooting owl, was mute. 
None, but thou, O mighty prince ! canst avert the blow. 
Nothing, but frivolous amusements, please the indolent. 
Caesar, as well as Cicero, were admired for their eloquence. 

Under Note 3. 

Each day, and each hour, bring their portion of duty. 
Every house, and even every cottage, were plundered. 
Every thought, every word, and every action, will be brought 

into judgement, whether they be good or evil. 
The time will come, when no oppressor, no unjust man, will 

be able to screen themselves from punishment. 

No bandit fierce, no tyrant mad with pride, 
No cavern'd hermit, rest self-satisfied. 

Under Note 4. 

In this affair, perseverance with dexterity were requisite. 

Town or country are equally agreeable to me. 

Sobriety with humility lead to honour. 

The king, with the lords, and the commons, compose the 

British parliament. 
The man with his whole family are dead. 
A small house in addition to a tiifling annuity, are still granted 

him. 

Under Note 5. 

To profess, and to possess, is very different things. 
To do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with God, is 
duties of universal obligation. 



SYNTAX. VEKBS. 157 

To be round or square, to be solid or fluid, to be large or small, 
and to be moved swiftly or slowly, is all equally alien from 
the nature of thought. 

RULE XIL— VERBS. 

When a Verb has two or more singular nominatives 
connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the 
singular number : as, " Fear or jealousy affects him." 

OBSERVATION ON RULE XII. 

To this rule there are properly no exceptions. But in the learned lan- 
guages, a plural verb is often employed with singular nominatives thus con- 
nected; as, 

" Tunc nee mens mihi, nee color 
Certa sede manent." — Horace. 

And the best scholars have sometimes improperly imitated this construc- 
tion in English ; as, 

" He comes — nor want nor cold his course delay . 
Hide, blushing Glory! hide Pultowa's day." — Dr. Johnson, 

NOTES TO RULE XII. 

Note I. — When a verb has nominatives of different persons 
or numbers, connected by or or nor, it must agree with that 
which is placed next to it, and be understood to the rest, in the 
person and number required ; as. " Neither he nor his brothers 
were there." — u Neither you nor I am concerned." — " That 
neither they nor ye also die."— Numb, xviii. 3. 

Obs. 1. — When the latter nominative is parenthetical, the verb agrees 
with the former only ; as, " One example (or ten) says nothing against the 
universal opinion." — Leigh Hunt. "And we (or future ages) may possibly 
liaxe a proof of it." — Bp. Butler. 

Obs. 2. — When the alternative is merely in the words, not in the thought, 
the terms are virtually in apposition, and the principal nominative alone 
controls the verb ; but there is always a harshness in this mixture of differ- 
ent numbers : as, "A parathesis, or brackets, consists of two angular strokes, 
or hooks, enclosing one or more words." — Whiting. "To show us that 
our own schemes, or prudence, have no share in our advancements." — Addi- 
son. " The Mexican Jigures, or picture-writing, represent things, not words ; 
ihey exhibit images to the eye, not ideas to the understanding." — Murray's 
Gr. p. 243. 

Note II. — But when the nominatives require different forms 
of the verb, it is in general more elegant to express the verb, 
or its auxiliary, in connexion with each of them ; as, " Either 
thou art to blame, or I am." — " Neither were their numbers, 
nor was their destination known." 

Note IIL — The speaker should generally mention himself 
last ; as, " Thou or I must go." — " He then addressed his dis- 
course to my father and me." But in confessing a fault he 

14 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

may assume the first place ; as, " / and Robert did it." — Jlf. 
Edgeworth. 

Note IV. — Two or more distinct subject phrases connected 
by or or nor, require a singular verb ; as, " That a drunkard 
should be poor, or that a fop should be ignorant, is not strange." 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XII. 

Ignorance or negligence have caused this mistake. 

[Not proper, because the verb have caused is of the plural number, and 
does not correctly agree with its two nominatives, ignorance and negligence^ 
which are connected by or, and taken disjunctively. But, according to 
Rule 12th, " When a verb has two or more singular nominatives connected 
by or or nor, it must agree with them in the singular number." Therefore, 
have caused should be has caused ; thus, Ignorance or negligence has caused 
this mistake.] 

Neither imprudence, credulity, nor vanity, have ever been im- 
puted to him. 

What the heart or the imagination dictate, flows readily. 

Neither authority nor analogy support such an opinion. 

Either ability or inclination were wanting. 

Redundant grass or heath afford abundance to their cattle. 

The returns of kindness are sweet ; and there are neither hon- 
our, nor virtue, nor utility, in repelling them. 

The sense or drift of a proposition, often depend upon a single 
letter. 

Under Note 1. 

Neither he nor you was there. 
Either the boys or I were in fault. 
Neither he nor I intends to be present. 
Neither the captain nor the sailors was saved. 
Whether one person or more was concerned in the business, 
does not yet appear. 

Under Note 2. 

Are they or I expected to be there % 

Neither he, nor am I, capable of it. 

Either he has been imprudent, or his associates vindictive. 

Neither were their riches, nor their influence great. 

Under Note 3. 

I and my father were riding out. 

The premiums were given to me and George. 

I and Jane are invited. 

They ought to invite me and my sister. 

We dreamed a dream in one night, I and he. 



SYNTAX. VERBS. 159 

Under Note 4. 

To practise tale-bearing, or even to countenance it, are great 

injustice. 
To reveal secrets, or to betray one's friends, are contemptible 

perfidy. 

RULE XIIL— VERBS. 

When Verbs are connected by a conjunction, they must 
either agree in mood, tense, and form, or have separate 
nominatives expressed : as, " He himself held the plough, 
sowed the grain, and attended the reapers." — " She was 
proud, but she is now humble." 

EXCEPTION. 

Verbs differing in mood, tense, or form, may sometimes agree with the 
same nominative, especially if the simplest verb be placed first; as, 

" What nothing earthly gives or can destroy." — Pope. 
" Some are, and must be, greater than the rest." — Id. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XIII. 

Obs. 1. — When separate nominatives are expressed, distinct sentences are 
formed, and the verbs have not a common construction. Those examples 
which require a repetition of the nominative might be corrected equally well 
by Note 5th to Rule 9th. 

Obs. 2. — Those parts which are common to several verbs, are generally 
expressed to the first, and understood to the rest: as, " Every sincere en- 
deavour to amend shall be assisted, [shall be] accepted, and [shall be] reward- 
ed." — " Honourably do the best you can" [do.] — " He thought as I did" 
[think.] — "You have seen it, but I have not" [seen it] — " If you will go, I 
will" [go.] 

NOTES TO RULE XIIL 

Note I. — The preterit should not be employed to form the 
compound tenses, nor should the perfect participle be used for 
the preterit. Thus : say, " To have gone 11 — not, " To have 
went ;" and, " I did it' ; — not, " I done it." 

Note II. — Care should be taken, to give every verb its ap- 
propriate form and signification. Thus : say, " He lay by the 
fire"— not, " He laid by the fire." — " He had entered into the 
connexion" — not, "He was entered into the connexion." — "I 
would rather stay" — not, " I had rather stay." 

Obs. — Several verbs which resemble each other in form are frequently 
confounded : as, to Jlee, to fly ; to lay, to lie ; to sit, to set ; to fall, to fell ; to 
rend, to rent ; to ride, to rid ; &c. Some others are often misapplied ; as, 
learn for teach. There are also erroneous forms of some of the compound 
tenses : as," We will be convinced," for " We shall be convinced ;"— " If I had 
have seen him," for " If I had seen him." All such errors are to be corrected 
by the foregoing note. 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XIII. 

They would neither go in themselves, nor suffered others to 
enter. 

[Not proper, because the two verbs would go and suffered, which are con- 
nected without separate nominatives, do not agree in mood. But accord- 
ing to Rule 13th, " When verbs are connected by a conjunction, they must 
either agree in mood, tense, and form, or have separate nominatives express- 
ed." The sentence is best* corrected by changing suffered to would suffer ; 
(would understood ;) thus, They would neither go in themselves, nor suffer 
others to enter.] 

Doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and goeth into the 
mountains, and seeketh that which is gone astray 1 

Did he not tell thee his fault, and entreated thee to forgive him ? 

If he understands the business, and attend to it, wherein is he 
deficient % 

The day is approaching, and hastens upon us, in which we 
must give an account of our stewardship. 

If thou dost not turn unto the Lord, but forget him who re- 
membered thee in thy distress, great will be thy condemna- 
tion. — Barclay. 

There are a few who have kept their integrity to the Lord, 
and prefer his truth to all other enjoyments. 

This report was current yesterday, and agrees with what we 
heard before. 

Virtue is generally praised, and would be generally practised 
also, if men were wise. 

Under Note 1. 

He would have went with us, if we had invited him. 
They have chose the part of honour and virtue. 
He soon begun to be weary of having nothing to do. 
Somebody has broke my slate. . 
I seen him when he done it. 

Under Note 2. 

He was entered into the conspiracy. 
The American planters grow cotton and rice. 
The report is predicated on truth. 
I entered the room and set down. 
Go and lay down, my son. 

With such books, it will always be difficult to learn children to 
read. 



* Errors under this rule may generally be corrected in three ways : 1. By 
changing the first verb, to agree with the second — 2. By changing the second 
verb, to agree with the first — 3. By inserting the nominative. Tke form pre- 
ferred, is in the Key. 



SYNTAX. PARTICIPLES. 161 

RULE XIV.— PARTICIPLES. 

Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or are governed 
by prepositions : as, " Elizabeth's tutor, at one time paying 
her a visit, found her employed in reading Plato." — Hume. 

EXCEPTION FIRST. 

A participle sometimes relates to a preceding phrase or sentence, of which 
it forms no part ; as, 

" But ever to do ill our sole delight, 
As being the contrary to his high will." — Milton. 

EXCEPTION SECOND. 

With an infinitive denoting being or action in the abstract, a participle is 
sometimes also taken abstractly ; (that is, without reference to any particu- 
lar noun, pronoun, or other subject;) as, "To seem compelled is disagree- 
able." — " To keep always praying aloud is plainly impossible." 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XIV. 

Obs. 1. — To this rule there are properly no other exceptions ; for we can- 
not agree with Murray that it is strictly correct to make participles in ing 
the subjects or objects of verbs, while they retain the government and ad- 
juncts of participles ; as, " Not attending to this rule, is the cause of a very 
common error." — Murray's Key. " He abhorred being in debt." — Ibid. 
'* Cavilling and objecting upon any subject, is much easier than clearing up 
difficulties." — Bp. Butler. This mixed and erroneous construction of the 
participle, is a great blemish in the style of several English authors. It is at 
best a useless anomaly, which it is always easy to avoid ; as, " Inaitentionto 
this rule is the cause of a very common error." — " He abhorred debt." — " To 
cavil and object upon any subject is much easier than to clear up difficulties." 

Obs. 2. — The word to which the participle relates, is sometimes under- 
stood ; as, " Granting this to be true, what is to be inferred from it 7" — 
Murray. That is, " I granting this to be true, ask what is to be inferred 
from it 1" — " The very chin w r as, [7] modestly speaking, [say,] as long as 
my whole face." — Addison. Some grammarians Have erroneously taught 
that such participles are put absolute. 

Obs. 3. — Participles are almost always placed after the w r ords on which 
their construction depends, but sometimes they are introduced before them; 
as, 

" Immur'd in cypress shades, a sorcerer dwells." — Milton. 

NOTES TO RULE XIV. 

Note I. — Active Participles have the same government as 
the verbs from which they are derived ; the preposition of there- 
fore, should never be used after the participle, when the verb 
does not require it. Thus, in phrases like the following, of is 
improper : " Keeping of one day in seven" — " By preaching of 
repentance" — " They left beating of Paul." 

Obs. — When participles are compounded with something that does not 
belong to the verb, they become adjectives ; and, as such, they cannot 

14* 



' 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

govern an object after them. The following sentence is therefore inaccu- 
rate: " When Cams did any thing unbecoming his dignity." — Jones's Church 
History. Such errors are to be corrected by Note 15th to Rule 4th, or by 
changing the particle ; as, "Unbecoming to his dignity," or, "Not becom- 
ing his dignity." 

Note II. — When a transitive participle is converted into a 
noun, of must be inserted to govern the object following. 

Obs. 1. — An imperfect or a compound participle, preceded by an arti- 
cle, an adjective, or a noun or pronoun of the possessive case, becomes 
a verbal noun ; and, as such, it cannot govern an object after it. A word 
which may be the object of the participle in its proper construction, re- 
quires the preposition of, to connect it with the verbal noun ; as, 1 . (The 
participle,) li Worshiping idols, the Jews sinned. "W. Thus worshiping 
idols — In worshiping idols — or, By worshiping idols, they sinned." 2. (The 
verbal noun,) " The icorshiping of idols — Such worshiping of idols- — or, 
Their worshiping q/" idols, was sinful." — " In the worshiping of idols, there is 
sin." 

Obs. .2.— When the use of the preposition produces ambiguity or harsh- 
ness, the expression must be varied. Thus, the sentence, " He mentions 
Newton's writing of a commentary," is both ambiguous and awkward. If 
the preposition be omitted, the word writing will have a double construction, 
which is inadmissible. Some would say, " He mentions Newton writing a 
commentary." This is still worse; because it makes the leading word in 
sense the adjunct in construction. The meaning may be correctly express- 
ed thus : " He mentions that Newton wrote a commentary." "By his study 
ing the Scriptures, he became wise." Here his serves only to render th\ 
sentence incorrect : all such possessives are to be expunged by Note 5th to 
Rule 19th. 

Obs. 3. — We sometimes find a participle that takes the same case after 
as before it, converted into a verbal noun, and the latter word retained un- 
changed in connexion with it; as, " I have some recollection of his father's 
being a judge" — " To prevent its being a dry detail of terms." — Buck. 
The noun after the verbal, is in apposition with the possessive going be- 
fore. Nouns that are in apposition with the possessive case, do not admit 
the possessive sign. But the above-mentioned construction is anomalous, 
and perhaps it would be better to avoid it ; thus : " I have some recollection 
thai his father was a judge." — " To prevent it from being a dry detail of 
terms." 

Obs. 4. — The verbal noun should not be accompanied by any adjuncts of 
the verb or participle, unless they be taken into composition; as, "The 
hypocrite's hope is like the giving-up of the ghost." The following phrase 
is therefore inaccurate : " For the more easily reading of large numbers." 
Yet if we say, " For reading large numbers the more easily" the construc- 
tion is different, and not inaccurate. 

Note III. — A participle should not be used where the infini- 
tive mood, the verbal noun, a common substantive, or a phrase 
equivalent, will better express the meaning. 

Obs. 1. — Participles that have become nouns, may be used as such with 
or without the article; as, spelling, reading, writing, drawing. But we 
sometimes find those which retain the government and the adjuncts of 
participles, used as nouns before or after verbs \ as, " Exciting such dis- 
turbances, is unlawful." — "Rebellion is rising against government' 
This mongrel construction is liable to ambiguity, and ought to be avoided. 
The infinitive mood, the verbal or some other noun, or a clause intro* 



SYNTAX. PARTICIPLES. 163 

duced by the conjunction that, will generally express the idea in a better 
manner; as, " To excite such disturbances, — The exciting of such disturb- 
ances, — Tie excitation of such disturbances, — or, That one should excite such 
disturbances, is unlawful." 

Obs. 2. — After verbs signifying to persevere or to desist, the participle in 
ing, relating to the nominative, may be used in stead of the infinitive con- 
nected to the verb ; as, " So when they continued asking him." — John, viii. 
7. Here continued is intransitive, and asking relates to they. Greek, '0,$ 61 
iiriixzvov IpcortivTss avrov. Latin, " Cum ergo perseverarent interrogantes 
eum." But in sentences like the following, the participle seems to be im- 
properly made the object of the verb : " I intend doing it." — "I remember meet- 
ing him.'' — Better, " I intend to do it." — " I remember to have met aim." — 
Verbs do not govern participles. 

Ob*. 3. — After verbs of beginning, omitting, and avoiding, some writers 
employ the participle in English, though the analogy of general grammar 
evidently requires in such cases the infinitive or a noun ; as, " It is now 
above three years since he began printing." — Dr. Admn's Pref. to Rom. 
Antiquities. " He omits giving an account of them." — Tooke's Div. of Pur- 
ley, vol. 1. p. 251. ' ; He studied to avoid expressing himself too severely." 
— Murray' 's Gram. 8m vol. 1. p. 194. If these examples are good English, 
(for the point is questionable,) the verbs are all intransitive, and the partici- 
ples relate to the nominatives going before, as in the text quoted in the pre- 
ceding observation. But Murray, not understanding this construction, or 
not observing what verbs admit of it, has very unskilfully laid it down as a 
rule, that, " The participle with its adjuncts, may be considered as a sub- 
stantive phrase in the objective case, governed by the preposition or verb ;" 
whereas he himself on the preceding page, had adopted from Lowth el dif- 
ferent doctrine, and cautioned the learner against treating words in ing, "as 
if they were of an amphibious species, partly nouns and partly verbs ;" that 
is, " partly nouns and partly participles;" for, according to Murray, parti- 
ciples are verbs. The term " substantive phrase" is a solecism, invented 
merely to designate this anomalous construction. Copying Lowth again, 
he defines a phrase to be "two or more words rightly put together;" and 
whatsoever words are rightly put together, may be regularly parsed. 
But how can one indivisible word be made two different parts of speech 
at once 1 And is not this the situation of every transitive participle that 
is made either the subject or the object of a verb 1 Adjuncts never alter 
either the nature or the construction of the words on which they de- 
pend ; and participial nouns always differ from participles in both. The 
former express actions as things ; the latter attribute them to their agents or 
recipients. 

Note IV. — In the use of participles and of verbal nouns, the 
leading word in sense, should always be made the leading or 
governing word in the construction. 

Obs.— A participle construed after the nominative or the objective case, is 
not equivalent to a verbal noun governing the possessive. There is some- 
times a nice distinction to be observed in the application of these two con- 
structions. For the leading word in sense should not be made the adjunct 
in construction. The following sentences exhibit a disregard to this princi- 
ple, and are both inaccurate : " He felt his strength's declining."—" He was 
sensible of his strength declining." In the former sentence the noun strength 
should be in the objective case, governed by felt ; and in the latter, in the 
possessive, governed by declining. 

Note V. — Participles, in general, however construed, should 



164 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



have a clear reference to the proper subject of the being, action, 
or passion. The following sentence is therefore faulty : " By 
giving way to sin, trouble is encountered." This suggests that 
trouble gives way to sin. It should be, " By giving way to sin, 
we encounter trouble." 

Note VI. — The preterit of irregular verbs should not be 
used for the perfect participle : as, a A certificate wrote on 
parchment" — for,. "A certificate written on parchment." This 
error should be carefully avoided. 

Note VII. — Perfect participles being variously formed, care 
should be taken to express them agreeably to the best usage : 
thus, learnt, snatcht, checkt, snapt, mixt, past, are erroneously 
written for learned, snatched, checked, snapped, mixed, passed; 
and holden, foughten, proven, are now superseded by held, fought, 
proved. 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XIV. 

Examples under Note 1. 

In forming of his sentences, he was very exact. 

[Not proper, because the preposition of is used after the participle form- 
ing, whose verb does not require it. But, according to Note 1 st under Rule 
14th, " Participles have the same government as the verbs from which they 
are derived ; the preposition of therefore, should not be used after the par- 
ticiple when the verb does not require it." Therefore, of should be omitted j 
thus, In forming his sentences, he was very exact.] 

By observing of truth, you will command respect. 

I could not, for my heart, forbear pitying of him. 

I heard them discussing of this subject. 

By consulting of the best authors, he became learned. 

Here are rules, by observing of which, you may avoid error. 

Under Note 2. 

Their consent was necessary for the raising any supplies. 
Thus the saving a great nation devolved on a husbandman. 
It is an overvaluing ourselves, to decide upon every thing. 
The teacher does not allow any calling ill names. . 
That burning the capital was a wanton outrage. 
May nothing hinder our receiving so great a good. 
My admitting the fact will not affect the argument. 
Cain's killing his brother, originated in envy. 

Under Note 3. 

Caesar carried off the treasures, which his opponent had neg- 
lected taking with him. — Goldsmith. 
It is dangerous playing with edge tools. 
I intend returning in a few days. 



SYNTAX.— AD VERBS. 1 65 

Suffering needlessly is never a duty. 
Nor is it wise complaining. — Cowper. 
I well remember telling you so. 
Doing good is a Christian's vocation.- — H. More. 
Piety is constantly endeavouring to live to God. It is earnestly 
desiring to do his will, and not our own. — Id. 

Under Note 4. 

There is no harm in women knowing about these things. 
They did not give notice of the pupil leaving. 
The sun's darting his beams through my window, awoke me. 
The maturity of the sago tree is known by the leaves being 
covered with a delicate white powder. 

Under Note 5. 

Sailing up the river, the whole town may be seen. 

Being conscious of guilt, death becomes terrible. 

By yielding to temptation, our peace is sacrificed. 

In loving our enemies, no man's blood is shed. 

By teaching the young, they are prepared for usefulness. 

Under Note 6. 

A nail well drove will support a great weight. 
See here a hundred sentences stole from my work. 
I found the water entirely froze, and the pitcher broke. 
Being forsook by my friends, I had no other resource. 

Under Note 7. 

Till by barbarian deluges o'erflown. 

Like the lustre of diamonds sat in gold. 

A beam ethereal, sullied and absorpt. 

With powerless wings around them wrapt. 

Error learnt from preaching, is held as sacred truth. 

RULE XV.— ADVERBS. 

Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or othei 
adverbs : as, " Any passion that habitually discomposes 
our temper, or unfits us for properly discharging the du- 
ties of life, has most certainly gained a very dangerous 
ascendency."- - -Blair. 

EXCEPTION FIRST. 

The adverbs yes and yea, expressing a simple affirmation, and the adverbs 
no and nay 7 expressing a simple negation, are always independent. They 
generally answer a question, and are equivalent to a whole sentence. Is it 
clear, that they ought to be called adverbs % No. 






16S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXCEPTION SECOND. 

The word amen, which is commonly called an adverb, is often used inde- 
pendently at the beginning or end of a declaration or prayer ; and is itself a 
prayer, meaning, so let it be. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XV. 

Obs. 1. — On this rule Dr. Adam remarks : " Adverbs sometimes likewise 
qualify substantives;" and gives Latin examples of the following im- 
port: " Homer plainly an orator" — " Truly Metellus" — " To-morrow morn- 
ing" — " Yesterday morning." But this doctrine is not well proved by 
such imperfect phrases, nor can it ever be consistently admitted ; because 
it destroys the characteristic difference between an adjective and an ad- 
verb. 

Obs. 2. — Whenever any of those words which are commonly used ad- 
verbially, are made to relate directly to nouns or pronouns, they must be 
reckoned adjectives, and parsed by Rule 4th; as, "The above* verbs." — Dr. 
Adam. "God only." — Bible. "He alone" — Id. " A far country." — Id. 
" No wine — No new thing — No greater joy." — Id. " Nothing else." — Blair. 
" To-morrow noon." — Scott. " This beneath world." — Shak. " Calamity 
enough." — *Tr. Sallust. "My hither way." 

Obs. 3.— When words of an adverbial character are used after the manner 
of nouns, they must be parsed as nouns and not as adverbs : as, " The Son 
of God — was not yea and nay, but in him was yea." — Bible. " For a 
great while to come." — Id. " On this perhaps, this per adventure infamous 
for lies." — Young. " From the extremest upward of thine head." — Shak. 
" Prate of my whereabout" — Id. " An eternal now does always last." — 
Cowley. " Discourse requires an animated no." — Cowper. 

Obs. 4. — Adverbs sometimes relate to verbs understood ; as, " The former 
has written correctly ; but the latter, elegantly" "And, [I say] truly, if they 
had been mindful of that country from whence they came out, they might 
have had opportunity to have returned." — Heb. xi. 15. 

Obs. 5.-— ^To abbreviate expressions, and give them vivacity, verbs of self- 
motion (as go, come, rise, get, &c.) are sometimes suppressed, being suggest- 
ed to the mind by an emphatic adverb ; as, 

" I'll hence to London on a serious matter." — Shakspeare. 

" I'll in. I'll in. Follow your friend's counsel. I'll in." — Id. 

" Away old man ; give me thy hand ; away." — Id. 

n Would you youth and beauty stay, 

" Love hath wings, and will away. — Waller. 

" Up, up, Glentarkin ! rouse thee, ho 1" — W. Scott. 

Oes\ 6. — Most conjunctive adverbs relate to two verbs at the same time, 
and thus connect the two clauses; as, " And the rest will I set in order when 
I come." — 1 Cor. xi. 34. Here when is an adverb of time, relating to the 
two verbs, will set and come; the meaning being, "And the rest will I set in 
order at the time at which I come." 

NOTES TO RULE XV. 

Note I. — Adverbs must be placed in that position which 
will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable, 

* Murray and his copyists strongly condemn this use of above, and we do not 
contend for it; but, both he and they, (as well as others,) have repeatedly em- 
ployed the word in this manner: as, " The above construction." — Murray's Gr. 
8vo. p. 149. " The above instances."— p. 202. " The above rule,"— p. 270. 
* In such instances as the above.' 7 — p. 24. " The same as the above." — p. 66 



SYNTAX— ADVERBS. 167 

Obs. — For the placing of adverbs, no definite general rule can be 
given. Those which relate to adjectives, immediately precede them; and 
those which belong to compound verbs, are commonly placed after the first 
auxiliary. 

Note II. — Adverbs should not be used as adjectives ; nor 
should they be employed, when quality is to be expressed, and 
not manner : as, " The then ministry"—" The soonest time" — 
" Thine often infirmities"— -" It seems strangely.' 1 All these are 
wrong. 

Note III. — With a verb of motion, most grammarians pre- 
fer hither, thither, and whither, to here, there, and where, which 
are in common use ; as, " Come hither Charles" — not, " Come 
here" 

Note IV. — To the adverbs hence, thence, and whence, the 
preposition from is frequently (though not with strict propriety) 
prefixed. 

Note V. — The adverb hoio should not be used before the 
conjunction that, nor in stead of it ; as, " He said how he would 
go." Expunge how. This is a vulgar error. 

Note VI. — The adverb no should not be used with reference 
to a verb or a 'participle. Such expressions as, " Tell me wheth- 
er you will go or no," are therefore improper : no should be not; 
for " go" is understood after it. 

Obs. — No is sometimes an adverb of degree; and as such it has this pecu- 
liarity, that it can relate only to comparatives : as, " No more" — " No better" 
— "No greater"— " No sooner." When this word is prefixed to a noun, it 
is clearly an adjective, corresponding to the Latin nullus ; as, "No clouds, 
710 vapours intervene." — Dyer. 

Note VII. — A negation, in English, admits but one nega- 
tive word : as, " I could not wait any longer" — not, "no longer." 
Double negatives are vulgar. 

Obs. 1. — The repetition of a negative word or clause, strengthens the ne- 
gation, as, " No, no, no." But two negatives in the same clause, destroy 
the negation, and render the meaning affirmative ; as, " Nor did they not 
perceive their evil plight." — Milton. That is, they did perceive it. 

Obs. 2. — Ever and never are directly opposite in sense, and yet they are 
frequently confounded and misapplied even by respectable writers ; as, . 
" Seldom, or never, can we expect," &c. — Blair's Lectures, p. 305. " Sel- 
dom, or ever, did any one rise," &c. — Ibid. p. 272. Here never is right, and 
ever is wrong. But as the negative adverb applies only to time, ever is pref- 
erable to never, in sentences like the following : " Now let man reflect but 
never so little on himself." — Burlamaqui, p. 29. " Which will not hearken 
to the voice of charmers, charming never so wisely." — Ps. lviii. 5. For the 
phrase ever so, (which ought perhaps to be written as one word,) is a very 
common expression, denoting degree, however great or small ; as, " everso 
little" — " everso wisely." And it seems to be this, and not time, that is in- 
tended in the last two examples. 

Obs. 3. — By the customary (but faulty) omission of the negative before 
but, that conjunction has acquired the adverbial sense of only; and it 
may, when used with that signification, be called an adverb. Thus, the 
text, "He hath not grieved me but in part," [2 Cor, ii. 5.] might drop 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the negative, and still convey the same meaning : "He hath grieved me but 
in part." 

" Reason itself, but gives it edge and power." — Pope. 

" Born but to die, and reasoning but to err." — Id. 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XV. 

Examples under Note 1. 

We were received kindly. 

[Not proper, because the adverb kindly is not in the most suitable place. 
But, according to note 1st under Rule 15th, " Adverbs must be placed in 
that position which will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agree* 
able. The sentence will be improved by placing kindly before received; 
thus, We were kindly received.] 

The work will be never completed. 

We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. 

It is impossible continually to be at work. 

He impertinently behaved to his master. 

The heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually. 

Not only he found her busy, but pleased and happy even. 

Under Note 2. 

Give him a soon and decisive answer. 
When a substantive is put absolutely. 
Such expressions sound harshly. 
Such events are of seldom occurrence. 
Velvet feels very smoothly. 

Under Note 3. 

Bring him here to me. 

I shall go there again in a few days. 

Where are they all riding in so great haste ? 

Under Note 4. 

From hence it appears that the statement is incorrect 
From thence arose the misunderstanding. 
Do you know from whence it proceeds ? 

Under Note 5. 

You see how that not many are required. 

I knew how that they had heard of his misfortunes. 

He remarked, how time was valuable. 

Under Note 6. 

Know now, whether this be thy son's coat or no. 
Whether he is in fault or no, I cannot tell. 
I will ascertain whether it is so or no. 



SYNTAX. CONJUNCTIONS. 169 

Under Note 7. 

I will not .by no means entertain a spy. 

Nobody never invented nor discovered nothing, in no way to 

be compared with this. 
Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of disguise. 
I did not like neither his temper nor his principles. 
Nothing never can justify ingratitude. 

RULE XVI.— CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions connect either words or sentences : as, 
"Let there be no strife, I pray thee, between me and thee, 
and between my herdmen and thy herdmen ; for we are 
brethren." — Gen. xiii. 8. 

EXCEPTION FIRST. 

The conjunction that sometimes serves merely to introduce a sentence 
which is made the subject of a verb ; as, " Tliat mind is not matter, is cer- 
tain." 

EXCEPTION SECOND. 

When two corresponding conjunctions occur, the former should be 
parsed as referring to the latter, which is more properly the connecting 
word ; as, " Neither sun nor stars in many days appeared." — Acts, 
xxvii. 20. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XVI. 

Obs. 1. — Conjunctions that connect particular words, generally join sim 
liar parts of speech in a common dependence on some other term. Those 
which connect sentences or clauses, commonly unite one to an other, either 
as an additional affirmation, or as a condition, a cause, or an end. They are 
placed between the terms which they connect, except there is a transposition, 
and then they stand before the dependent term, 

Obs. 2. — Two or three conjunctions sometimes come together; as, 

" What rests, but that the mortal sentence pass V' — Milton. 

Obs. 3. — Conjunctions should not be unnecessarily accumulated ; as. 
"But and if that evil servant say in his heart.' 7 — Matt. xxiv. 43. Greek, 
'K'-v Si c.-rrr} '• xtiKos 6 rX s i uv ?, ccc. Here is no and. 

Obs. 4. — The conjunction as often unites words that are in apposition ; as, 
"He offered himself as a journeyman." [See Obs. 5, Rule xx.T So, like- 
wise, when an intransitive verb takes the same case alter as before it, by 
Rule xxi. : as, " Johnson soon after engaged as usher in a school." — Murray. 
"He was employed as usher." This also is a virtual apposition. If after the 
verb "engaged" we supply himself, usher becomes objective, and is in appo- 
sition with the pronoun. 

Obs. 5. — As frequently has the force of a relative pronoun; as, "Avoid 
such as are vicious." " But to as many as received him," &c. " He 
then read the conditions as follow." Here as represents a noun, and is 
the subject of a verb. [See Tooke's Diversions of Purley.] But when a 
clause, or sentence, is the antecedent, it is better to consider as a conjunc- 
tion, and to supply the pronoun it: as, "He is angry, as [it J appears by this 
letter." i _ 

15 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 6. — The conjunction that is frequently understood; as, 

" Thou warnst me [that] I have done amiss." — Scott. 

Obs. 7. — After than or as expressing a comparison, there is Usually an el- 
lipsis of some word or words. The construction of the words employed 
may be known by supplying the ellipsis; as, " She is younger than I" [am.] 
— " He does nothing who endeavours to do more than [what] is allowed to 
humanity." — Johnson. " My punishment is greater than [wliat] I can bear." 
—Bible. 

NOTES TO RULE XVI. 

Note I. — When two terms connected refer jointly to a third, 
they must be adapted to it and to each other, both in sense and 
in form. Thus : in stead of, " It always has, and always will 
be laudable," say, " It always has been, and it always will be 
laudable." 

Note II. — The disjunctive conjunctions lest and but, should 
not be employed where the copulative that, would be more 
proper : as, " I feared that I should be deserted ;" not, " lest I 
should be deserted." 

Note III. — After else, other, rather, and all comparatives, the 
latter term of comparison should be introduced by the conjunc- 
tion than : as, u Can there be any other than this ?" — Harris. 
" Is not the life more than meat ?" — Bible. 

Note IV. — The words in each of the following pairs, are 
the proper correspondents to each other ; and care should be 
taken, to give them their right place in the sentence : 

1. Though — yet; as, " Though he were dead, yet shall he 
live." — John, xi. 25. 

2. Whether — or ; as, " Whether there be few or many." 

3. Either — or ; as, " He was either ashamed or afraid." 

4. Neither — nor ; as, " John the Baptist came neither eating 
bread nor drinking wine." — Luke, vii. 33. 

5. Both — and ; as, " I am debtor both to the Greeks and to 
the Barbarians." — Rom. i. 14. 

6. Such — as ; as, " An assembly such as earth saw never." — 
Cowper. 

7. Such — that ; with a finite verb following, to express a con- 
sequence : as, " My health is such that I cannot go." 

8. As — as; with an adjective or an adverb, to express equal- 
ity: as, " The peasant is as gay as he." — Cowper. 

9. .As — so; with two verbs, to express equality or proportion: 
as, " As two are to four, so are six to twelve." 

10. So — as; with an adjective or an adverb, to limit the de- 
gree by comparison : as, " How can you descend to a thing so 
oase as falsehood V 1 



SYNTAX. CONJUNCTIONS. 171 

11. So — as; with a negative preceding, to deny equality: 
as, u No lamb was e'er so mild as he." — Langhorne. 

12. So — as; with an infinitive following, to express a con- 
sequence : as, " These difficulties were so great as to discour- 
age him." 

13. So — that ; with a finite verb following, to express a 
consequence : as, " He was so much injured, that he could not 
walk." 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XVI. 

Examples under Note 1. 

The first proposal was essentially different and inferior to the 
second. 

[Not proper, because the preposition to, is used with joint reference to 
the two adjectives different and inferior, which require different preposi- 
tions. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 16th. "When two terms 
connected refer jointly to a third, they must be adapted to it and to each 
other, both in sense and in form." The sentence may be corrected thus ; 
The first proposal was essentially different from- the second, and inferior 
to it.] 

He has made alterations and additions to the work. 
He is more bold, but not so wise, as his companion. 
Sincerity is as valuable, and even more so, than knowledge. 
I always have, and I always shall be, of this opinion. 
What is now kept secret, shall be hereafter displayed and heard 

in the clearest light. 
We pervert the noble faculty of speech, when we use it to the 

defaming or to disquiet our neighbours. 
Be more anxious to acquire knowledge than of showing it. 
The court of chancery frequently mitigates and breaks the 

teeth of the common law. 

Under Note 2. 

We were apprehensive lest some accident had happened. 

I do not deny but he has merit. 

Are you afraid lest he will forget you ? 

These paths and bow'rs, doubt not but our joint hands, 
Will keep from wilderness. — Milton. 

Under Note 3. 

It was no other but his own father. 

Have you no other proof except this 1 

I expected something more besides this. 

He no sooner retires but his heart burns with devotion, 

Such literary filching is nothing else but robbery. 



J 72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



U lei Not i 



Neither despise or oppose what you do not understand. 

He would not either do it himself nor let me do it. 

The map sty of good things is such, as the confines of them are 

reverend. 
Whether he intends to do so, I cannot tell. 
Send me such articles only, that are adapted to this market, 
As far as I am able to judge, the book is well written. 
No errors are so trivial but they deserve correction. 
It will improve neither the mind, nor delight the fancy. 
The one is equally deserving as the other. 
There is no condition so secure as cannot admit of change. 
Do you think this is so good as that ? 

The relations are so obscure as tVy require much thought. 
None is so fierce that dare stir hkii up. 
There was no man so sanguine who did not apprehend some 

ill consequence. 
I must be so candid to own that I do not understand it. 
The book is not as well printed as it ought to be. 
So still he sat as those who wait 
Till judgement speak the doom of fate. — Scott. 

RULE XVII.— PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions show the relations of things : as,- " He came 
from Rome to Paris, in the company of many eminent 
men, and passed with them through many cities." — Ana- 
lectic Magazine. 

EXCEPTION FIRST. 

The preposition to, before an abstract infinitive, and at the head of a phrase 
which is made the subject of a verb, has no proper antecedent term of rela- 
tion ; as, " To learn to die, is the great business of life." — Dillwyn. " Never- 
theless, to abide in the flesh, is more needful for you." — St. Paul. " To be 
reduced to poverty, is a great affliction." 

EXCEPTION SECOND. 

The preposition for, when it introduces its object before an infinitive, 
end the whole phrase is made the subject of a verb, has properly no an- 
tecedent term of relation ; as, " For us to learn to die, is the great busi- 
ness of life." — " Nevertheless, for me to abide in the flesh, is more need- 
ful for you." — " For an old man to be reduced to poverty, is a very great 
affliction." 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XVII. 

Obs. 1.— In parsing a 'preposition, the learner should name the two 
ierms of the relation, and apply the foregoing rule. The principle is 
simple and etymological, yet not the less important as a rule of syntax. 
Among tolerable writers, the prepositions exhibit more errors than any 



SYNTAX. PREPOSITIONS. 173 

other equal number of words. This is probably owing to the careless man- 
ner in which they are usually slurred over in parsing. 

Obs. 2. — If the learner be at any loss to discover the two terms of 
relation, let him ask and answer two questions; first, with the interro- 
gative what before the preposition, to find the antecedent; and then, 
with the same pronoun after the preposition, to find the subsequent 
term. These questions answered according to the sense, will always 
give the true terms. If one term is obvious, find the other in this way ; 
as, " Day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night showeth knowl- 
edge." — Psal. What unto day % Ans. " Ijttereth unto day." What unto 
night % Ans. " Showeth unto niglit." To parse rightly is to understand 
rightly ; and what is well expressed, it is a shame to misunderstand or mis- 
interpret. 

Obs. 3. — When a preposition begins or ends a sentence or clause, the terms 
of relation are transposed; as, "To a studious man, action is a relief '." — 
Burgh. " Science they [the ladies] do not pretend to." — Id. " Until I have 
done that which I have spoken to thee of." — Gen. xxviii. 15. 

Obs. 4. — The former or antecedent term of relation may be a noun, an ad- 
jective, a pronoun, a verb, a participle, or an adverb : the latter or subsequent 
term may be a noun, a pronoun, a pronominal adjective, an infinitive verb, 
or an imperfect or pluperfect participle. The word governed by the prepo- 
sition, is always the subsequent term, however placed. 

Obs. 5. — Both the terms of relation are usually expressed ; though either 
of them may be understood : as, 1. The former — " All shall know me, [reck- 
oning] from the least to the greatest." — Heb. viii. 11. [I say] " in a word, 
it would entirely defeat the purpose." — Blair. 2. The latter — ■" Opinions 
and ceremonies [which] they would die for." — Locke. " In [those] who ob- 
tain defence, or who defend." — Pope. 

Obs. 6. — The only proper exceptions to the foregoing rule, are those 
which are inserted above, unless the abstract infinitive used as a predicate 
is also to be excepted ; as, " To reason right, is to submit." — Pope. But 
here most if not all grammarians would say, the verb is, is the antecedent 
or governing term. The relation, however, is not such as when we say, 
" lie is to submit ;" but, perhaps, to insist on a different mode of parsing these 
two infinitives, would be a needless refinement. In relation to the infini- 
tive, Dr. Adam remarks that the preposition to is often taken absolutely ; 
as, " To confess the truth" — " To proceed." But the assertion is not 
entirely true ; nor are his examples appropriate ; for what he and many 
other grammarians call the infinitive absolute, evidently depends on 
something understood; and the preposition is surely in no instance inde- 
pendent of what follows it, and is therefore never entirely absolute. 
Prepositions are not to be supposed to have no antecedent term, merely 
because they stand at the head of a sentence which is made the subject of 
a verb ; for the sentence itself often contains that term, as in the following 
example : " In what way mind acts upon matter, is unknown." Here in 

! shows the relation between acts and way; because it is suggested, that mind 
acts in some way. 

Obs. 7. — The preposition (as its name implies) precedes the word which 
it governs. But, in poetry, the preposition is sometimes placed after its ob- 
| ject; as, 

" Wild Carron's lonely woods among" — Langliorne. 

Obs. 8. — In the familiar style, a preposition governing a relative or an in- 
I torrogative pronoun, is often separated from its object, and connected with 
1 the other term of relation; as, " Whom did he speak to?" But it is more 

dignified, and in general more graceful, to place the preposition before the 

pronoun; a9, " To whom did he speak?'- 

u* 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 9. — Two prepositions sometimes come together; as, " Lambeth \a 
over against Westminster-abbey." — Murray. 

" And from before the lustre of her face." — Thomson. 

" Blows mildew from between his shrivel'd lips." — Cowper. 

These should be written as compounds, and taken together in parsing ; for 
if we parse them separately, we must either call the first an adverb, or sup- 
pose some very awkward ellipsis. 

Obs. 10. — Two separate prepositions have sometimes a joint reference 
to the same noun: as, "He boasted of, and contended for, the privilege." 
This construction is formal, and scarcely allowable, except in the law 
style. It is better to say, " He boasted of the privilege, and contended 
for it," 

Obs. 11. — The preposition into, expresses a relation produced by mo- 
tion or change; and in, the same relation, without reference to motion: 
hence, " to walk into the garden," and, " to walk in the garden," are very 
different. 

Obs. 12. — Between or betwixt is used in reference to two things or parties : 
among or amidst, in reference to a greater number, or to something by which 
an other may be surrounded ; as, 

" Thou pendulum betwixt a smile and tear." — Byron. 
" The host between the mountain and the shore." — Id 
" To meditate amongst decay, and stand 
A ruin amidst ruins." — Id. 

NOTES TO RULE XVII. 

Note I. — Prepositions must be employed agreeably to the 
usage and idiom of the language, so as rightly to express the 
relations intended. 

Note II. — An ellipsis of prepositions is inelegant, except in 
those phrases in which long and general use has sanctioned it 
Tn the following sentence, of is needed. 

« I w ill not flatter you, 

That all I see in you is worthy love. 11 — Shaft. 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XVII. 

Examples under Note 1. 
Her sobriety is no derogation to her understanding. 

[Not proper, because the relation between derogation and understanding 
is not correctly expressed by the preposition to. But, according to Note 1st 
under Rule 17th, " Prepositions must be employed agreeably to the usage 
and idiom of the language, so as rightly to express the relations intended." 
This relation would be better expressed by from ; thus, Her sobriety is no 
derogation from her understanding.] 

She finds a difficulty of fixing her mind. 
This affair did not fall into his cognizance. 
He was accused for betraying his trust. 
There was no water, and he died for thirst. 
t have no occasion of his services. 
Fou may safely confide on him. 



SYNTAX. INTERJECTIONS. 170 

I entertain no prejudice to him. 

You may rely in what I tell you. t 

Virtue and vice differ widely with each other. 

This remark is founded in truth. 

After many toils, we arrived to our journey's end. 

I will tell you a story very different to that. 

Their conduct is agreeable with their profession. 

Excessive pleasures pass from satiety in disgust. 

I turned into disgust from the spectacle. 

They are gone in the meadow. 

Let this he divided between the three. 

The shells were broken in pieces. 

The deception has passed among every one. 

They never quarrel among each other. 

Amidst every difficulty, he persevered. 

Let us go above stairs. 

I was at London, when this happened. 

We were detained to home, and disappointed in our walk. 

This originated from mistake. 

The Bridewell is situated to the west of the City-Hall, and it 

has no communication to the other buildings. 
I am disappointed of the work ; it is very inferior from what 1 

expected. 

Under Note 2. 

Be worthy me, as I am worthy you. — Dry den. 
They cannot but be unworthy the care of others. 
Thou shalt have no portion on this side the river. 
Sestos and Abydos were exactly opposite each other. 
Ovid was banished Rome by his patron Augustus. 

RULE XVIIL— INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections have no dependent construction : as, " O ' 
let not thy heart despise me." — Johnson. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XVIII. 

^ Obs. 1.— To this rule there are properly no exceptions. Though interjec 
tions are sometimes uttered in close connexion with other words, yet, being 
mere signs of passion and feeling, they cannot have any strict grammatical 
relation, or dependence according to the sense. Being destitute alike of re- 
lation, agreement, and government, they must be used independently, if 
used at all. 

Obs. 2. — The interjection O is common to many languages, -and is fre- 
quently prefixed to nouns or pronouns put absolute by direct address ; as, 
" Arise, O Lord; O God, lift up thine hand."— Psalm, x. 12. " O ye of 
little faith j" — Mat vi. 30. The Latin and Greek grammarians, therefore, 
made this interjection the sign of the vocative case; which is the same as the 
nominative put absolute by address in English. 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 3. — "Interjections in English have no government. " — Lowth. 
When a word not in the nominative absolute, follows an interjection, as part 
of an imperfect exclamation, its construction depends on something under- 
stood; as, "Ah me/" — that is, "Ah! pity me" — " Alas for them !" — that is, 
" Alas ! I sigh for them." — " O for that warning voice !"— that is, " O ! how 
I long- for that warning voice !" — " O ! that they were wise !" — that is, " O ! 
how I wish that they were wise." Such expressions, however, lose much 
of their vivacity, when the ellipsis is supplied. 

Obs. 4. — Interjections maybe placed before or after a simple sentence, and 
sometimes between its parts ; but they are seldom allowed to interrupt the 
connexion of words closely united in sense. Murray's definition of an in- 
terjection is faulty, and directly contradicted by his example: "O virtue! 
how amiable thou art !" 



II. GOVERNMENT. 

Obs. 1. — Government has respect only to nouns, pronouns, verbs, partici- 
ples, and prepositions ; the other five parts of speech neither govern nor are 
governed. The governing words may be either nouns, verbs, participles, or 
prepositions ; the words governed are either nouns, pronouns, verbs, or par- 
ticiples. In parsing, the learner must remember that the rules of govern- 
ment are not to be applied to the governing words, but to those which are 
governed ; and which, for the sake of brevity, are often technically named 
after the particular form or modification assumed ; as, possessives, objectives, 
same cases, infinitives, gerundives, &c. Taken in this way, none of the fol- 
lowing rules can have any exceptions. 

Obs. 2. — The Arrangement of words, (which is treated of in the observa- 
tions on the rules of construction,) is an important part of syntax, in which 
not only the beauty but the propriety of language is intimately concerned, 
and to which particular attention should therefore be paid in composition. 
But it is to be remembered, that the mere collocation of words in a sen- 
tence never affects the method of parsing them ; on the contrary, the same 
words, however placed, are always to be parsed in precisely the same way, 
so long as they express precisely the same meaning. In order to show 
that we have parsed any part of an inverted or difficult sentence rightly, 
we are at liberty to declare the meaning by any arrangement which will 
make the construction more obvious, provided we retain both the sense and 
all the words unaltered ; but to drop or alter any word, is to pervert the 
text, and to make a mockery of parsing. Grammar rightly learned, ena- 
bles one to understand both the sense and the construction of whatsoever 
is rightly written; and he who reads what he does not understand, reads 
to little purpose. With great indignity to the muses, several pretenders 
to grammar have foolishly taught, that, " in parsing poetry, in order to come 
at the meaning of the author, the learner will find it necessary to transpose 
his language." — Kirkham's Gr. p. 166. See also Merchant, Wilcox, Hull, 
and others, to the same effect. To what purpose can he transpose a sen- 
tence, who does not first see what it means, and how to explain or parse it 
as it stands 1 

RULE XIX.— POSSESSIVES. 

A noun or a pronoun in the Possessive case, is governed 
by the name of the thing possessed ; as, 

" Theirs is the vanity, the learning thine ; 

u Touch'd by thy hand, again Rome's glories shine." 



SYNTAX. POSSESSIVES. .77 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XIX. 

Obs. 1. — Every possessive is governed by some noun expressed or under- 
stood, except such as (without the possessive sign) are pat in apposition 
with others so governed ; and for every possessive termination there must 
be a separate governing word. The possessive sign may and must be omit- 
ted in certain cases ; but it is never omitted by ellipsis, as Murray errone- 
ously teaches. The four lines of Note 2d below, are sufficient to show, in 
every instance, when it must be used, and when omitted : but Murray, after 
as many octavo pages on the point, still leaves it undetermined. If a per- 
son knows what he means to say, let him express it according to the note, 
and he shall not err. 

Obs. 2. — The possessive case generally comes immediately before the gov- 
erning noun ; as, " All nature's difference keeps all nature's peace."— Pope. 
"Lady! be thine [i. e. thy walk] the Christian's walk." — Ch. Observer, 
But to this general principle there are some exceptions : as, 

1. When an adjective intervenes; as, "Flora's earliest smells." — Milton, 
" Of Will's last night's lecture." — Spectator. 

2. When the possession is affirmed or denied; as, "The book is mine, 
and not John's." But here the governing noun may be supplied in its prop- 
er place; and, in some such sentences, it must be, else a pronoun will be 
the only governing word: as, "Ye are Christ's [disciples,] and Christ is 
God's [son."]— St. Paul. 

3. When the case occurs without the sign ; as, " In her brother Absalom's 
house." — Bible. " David and Jonathan's friendship." — " Adam and Eve's 
morning hymn."— Dr. Ash. " Behold, the heaven, and the heaven of heav- 
ens, is the Lord's thy God." — Deut. x. 14. 

Oes. 3. — W^here the governing noun cannot be easily mistaken, it is often 
omitted by ellipsis; as, " At the alderman's" [house] — " A book of my bro- 
ther's" [books] — " A subject of the emperor's" [subjects.] This is the true 
explanation of all Murray's " double genitives;" for the first noun, being 
partitive, naturally suggests a plurality of the same kind. 

Obs. 4 — When two or more nouns of the possessive form are in any way 
connected, they usually refer to things individually different, but of the same 
name ; and when such is the meaning, the governing noun is understood 
wherever the sign is added without it ; as, 

"From Stiles's pocket into Nokes's" [pocket.] — & Butler. 
" Add Nature's, Custom's, Reason's, Passion's strife." — Pope. 

Obs. 5. — The possessive sign is sometimes annexed to that part of a com- 
pound name, which is, of itself in the objective case; as, " The captain-qf- 
the-guard's house." — Bible. " The Bard-qf- Lomond's lay is done." — Hogg. 
" Of the Children-of- Israel's half thou shalt take one portion. " — Num. xxxi. 
30. Such compounds ought always to be written with hyphens, and parsed 
together as possessives governed in the usual way. The words cannot be 
explained separately. 

Obs. 6. — In the following phrase, the possessive sign is awkwardly added 
to a distinct adjective: "In Henry the Eighth's time." — Walker's Key, In- 
trod. p. 11. Better, " In the time of Henry the Eighth." But, in the fol- 
lowing line, the adjective elegantly takes the sign; because there is an ellip- 
sis of both nouns : 

" The rich man's joys increase, the poor's decay." — Goldsmith. 

Obs. 7. — To avoid a concurrence of hissing sounds, the s is sometimes 
omitted, and the apostrophe alone retained to mark the possessive sin- 
gular; as, "For conscience' sake." — Bible. "Moses' minister." — Ibid. 
" Felix' room." — Ibid^ " Achilles' wrath." — Pope. But the elision should 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

be sparingly indulged. It is in general less agreeable than the regular form: 
as, Hicks' for Hicks' s — Barnes' for Barnes's. 

Obs. 8. — Whatever word or term gives rise to the direct relation of prop- 
erty, and is rightly made to govern the possessive case, must be a noun — 
must be the name of some substance, quality, state, or action. When there- 
fore other parts of speech assume this relation, they become nouns ; as, 
" Against the day of my burying." — John, xii. 7. " Of my whereabout." — 
SJiak. " The very head and front of my offending." — Id. 

Obs. 9. — Some grammarians say, that a participle may govern the pos- 
sessive case before it, and yet retain the government and adjuncts of a par- 
ticiple ; as, " We also properly say, ' This will be the effect of the pupil's com- 
posing frequently.' " — Murray's Gram. " What can be the reason of the 
committee's having delayed this business V — Murray's Key. This construc- 
tion is faulty, because it confounds the properties of different parts of speech, 
and produces a hybridous class between the participle and the noun ; "but 
this," says Lowth, "is inconsistent; let it be either the one or the other, and 
abide by its proper construction." It is also unnecessary, because the same 
idea may be otherwise expressed more elegantly ; as, " This will be the effect, 
if the pupil compose frequently." — " Why have the committee delayed this 
business V } 

NOTES TO RULE XIX. 

Note I. — In the use of the possessive case, its appropriate 
form should be observed : thus, write metis hers, its, ours, yours, 
theirs ; and not, mens', her's, it's our's, your's, theirs. 

Note II. — When nouns of the possessive case, are connected 
by conjunctions, or put in apposition, the sign of possession 
must always be annexed to such, and such only, as immediate- 
ly precede the governing noun, expressed or understood ; as, 
u John and Eliza's teacher is a man of more learning than 
James's or Andrew's." — " For David my servant's sake." — Bible. 
" Lost in love's and friendship's smile." — Scott. 

Note III. — The relation of property may also be expressed 
by the preposition of and the objective : as, " The will of man ;" 
for, " man's will." Of these forms, we should adopt that which 
will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable ; 
and by the use of both, avoid an unpleasant repetition of 
either. 

Note IV.- — A noun governing the possessive plural, should 
not be made plural, unless the sense requires it. Thus : say, 
" We have changed our mind," if only one purpose or opinion 
is meant. 

Obs. — A noun taken figuratively may be singular, when the literal mean- 
ing would require the plural: such expressions as, " Their face" — "Their 
neck" — "Their hand" — "Their head" — "Their heart" — "Our mouth" — 
" Our life" — are frequent in the Scriptures, and are not improper. 

Note V. — The possessive case should not be prefixed to a 
participle that is not taken in all respects as a noun. The 
following phrase is therefore wrong : " Adopted by the Goths 



SYNTAX. POSSESSIVES. 1 79 

- in their pronouncing the Greek." — Walker's Key, p. 17. Ex- 
punge their. 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XIX. 

Examples under Note 1. 

Thy ancestors virtue is not thine. 

[Not proper, because the noun ancestors, which is intended for the pos- 
sessive plural, has not the appropriate form of that case. But, according to 
Note 1st under Rule 19th, " In the use of the possessive case, its appropriate 
form should be observed." An apostrophe is required after ancestors ; thus, 
Thy ancestors 7 virtue is not thine.] 

Mans chief good is an upright mind. 

I will not destroy the city for ten sake 

Moses rod was turned into a serpent. 

They are wolves in sheeps clothing. 

The tree is known by it's fruit. 

The privilege is not their's, any more than it is your's. 

Yet he was gentle as soft summer airs, 

Had grace for others sins, but none for theirs'. 

Under Note 2. 

There is but little difference between the Earth and Venus's 

diameter. 
This hat is John, or James's. 
The store is opposite to Morris's and Company's. 
This palace had been the grand Sultan's Mahomet's, 
This was the Apostle's Paul's advice. 
Were Cain's occupation and Abel the same ? 
Were Cain and Abel's occupation the same ? 
Were Cain's and Abel's occupations the same ? 
Were Cain and Abel's parents the same ? 
Were Cain's parents and Abel the same ? 
Was Cain's and Abel's father there ? 
Were Cain's and Abel's parents there 1 

Thy Maker's will has placed thee here, 
A Maker's wise and good. 

Under Note 3. 

The world's government is not left to chance. 
He was Louis the Sixteenth's son's heir. 
The throne we honour is the choice of the people. 
We met at my brother's partner's house. 
An account of the proceedings of the court of Alexander. 
Here is a copy of the Constitution of the Society of Teachers 
of the city of New- York. 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Under Note 4. 

Their healths perhaps may be pretty well secured.— Locke, 

We all have talents committed to our charges. 

For your sakes forgave I it, in the sight of Christ 

We are, for our parts, well satisfied. 

The pious cheerfully submit to their lots. 

Fools think it not worth their whiles to be wise. 

Under Note 5. 

I rewarded the boy for his studying so diligently. 
Have you a rule for your thus parsing the participle ? 
He errs in his giving the word a double construction. 
By our offending others, we expose ourselves. 
They deserve our thanks, for their quickly relieving us. 

RULE XX.— OBJECTIVES. 

Active-transitive verbs, and their imperfect and pluper- 
fect participles, govern the objective case ; as, " I found her 
assisting him" — " Having finished the work. I submit it." 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XX. 

Obs. 1. — Every objective is governed by some verb or participle, accord- 
ing to this Rule, or by some preposition, according to Rule 22d ; except such 
as are put in apposition with others according to Rule 3d, or after an infini- 
tive or participle according to Rule 21st ; as, " Like him of Gath, Goliah." — 
"They took him to be me" 

Obs. 2. — The objective case generally follows the governing word : but 
when it is emphatic, it often precedes the nominative; as, " Me he restored 
to mine office, and him he hanged." — Gen. xli. 13. " Home he had not." — 
Thomson. " This point they have gained." In poetry it is sometimes 
placed between the nominative and the verb; as, " His daring foe securely 
him defied." — Milton. lt The broom its yellow leaf hath shed." — Lang- 
horne. A relative or an interrogative pronoun is commonly placed at the 
head of its clause, and of course it precedes the verb which governs it ; as, 
" I am Jesus, whom thou persecutest." — Acts. " Whom will the meeting 
appoint^" 

Obs. 3. — All active-transitive verbs have some noun or pronoun for their 
object. Though verbs are often followed by the infinitive mood, or a de- 
pendent clause, forming a part of the logical predicate ; yet these terms, be- 
ing commonly introduced by a connecting particle, do not constitute such an 
object as is contemplated in our definition of a transitive verb. If, in the 
sentence, " Boys love to play," the verb is transitive, as several grammarians 
affirm; why not also in "Boys like to play," "Boys delight to play," 
" Bovs seem to play," " Boys cease to play," and the like'? The construc- 
tion is precisely the same. It must, however, be confessed, that some verbs 
whim thus take the infinitive after them, cannot otherwise be intransi- 
tive. 

Obs. 4. — The word that, which is often employed to introduce a clause.-, 
is, by some grammarians, considered as a pronoun, representing the 
clause which follows it. And their opinion seems to be warranted both 



SYNTAX. OBJECTIVES. 181 

by the origin and the general import of the particle. But in conformity to 
general custom, and to his own views of the practical purposes of grammat- 
ical analysis, the author has ranked it with the conjunctions. And he thinks 
it better, to call those verbs intransitive, which are followed by that and a 
dependent clause, than to supply the very frequent ellipses which the other 
explanation supposes. To explain it as a conjunction, connecting an active- 
transitive verb and its object, (as several respectable grammarians do,) appears 
to involve some inconsistency. 

Obs. 5. — Active-transitive verbs are often followed by two objectives in 
apposition : as, " Thy saints proclaim thee king." — Cowper. " The Author 
of my being formed me man. — Murray. "And God called the firmament 
Heaven.' 1 '' — Bible. And, in such a construction, the direct object is some- 
times placed before the verb : as, " And Simon he surnamed Peter." — Mark, 
hi. 15. 

Obs. 6. — When a verb is followed by two words in the objective case, 
which are neither in apposition nor connected by a conjunction, one of them 
is governed by a preposition understood ; as, "I paid [to] him the money" — 
11 They offered [to] me a seat."^— u He asked [of] them the question" — " I 
yielded, and unlock'd [to] her all my heart." — Milton. 

Obs. 7. — In expressing such sentences passively, the object of the prepo- 
sition is sometimes erroneously assumed for the nominative; as, "He was 
paid the money" in stead of, " The money was paid [to] him" 

NOTES TO RULE XX. 

Note I. — Those verbs and participles which require an ob- 
ject, should not be used intransitively ; as, " She affects [kind- 
ness^] in order to ingraiitate [herself] with you." — " I will not 
allow of it." Expunge of that allow may govern the pro- 
noun it. 

Note II. — Those verbs and participles which do not admit 
an object, should not be used transitively; as, u The planters 
grow cotton." Say raise, or cultivate. 

Obs. — Some verbs will govern a kindred noun, or its pronoun, but no 
other; as, "He lived a virtuous life." — "Hear, I pray you, this dream which 
I have dreamed." — Gen. xxxvii. 6. 

Note III. — The passive verb should always take for its sub- 
ject the direct object of the active-transitive verb from which it 
is derived; as, (Active,) " They denied me this privilege." — 
(Passive,) " This privilege was denied me" — not, " J was denied 
this privilege." 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XX. 

She I shall more readily forgive. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun she is in the nominative case, and is 
used as the object of the active-transitive verb shall forgive. But according 
to Rule 20th, "Active-transitive verbs, and their imperfect and pluperfect 
participles, govern the objective case." — Therefore, she should be her ; thus, 
Her I shall more readily forgive.] 

Thou only have I chosen. 

Who shall we send on this errand? 

My father allowed my brother and I to accompany him. 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

He that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. 

Who should I meet but my old friend ! 

How long will it take ye to do it ? 

He accosts whoever he meets. 

Whosoever the court favours, is safe. 

They that honour me I will honour. 

Who do you think I saw the other day ? 

Under Note 1. 

The ambitious are always seeking to aggrandize. 
I must premise with three circumstances. 
This society does not allow of personal reflections. 
False accusation cannot diminish from real merit. 
His servants ye are to whom ye obey. 

Under Note 2. 

Good keeping thrives the herd. 
We endeavoured to agree the parties. 
Being weary, he sat him down. 
Go, flee thee away into the land of Judah. 
The popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on the 
subject. 

Under Note 3. 

They were refused the benefit of their recantation. 
Believers are not promised temporal riches. 
We were shown several beautiful pictures. 
But, unfortunately, I was denied the favour. 
You were paid a high compliment. 
I have never been asked the question. 

RULE XXL— SAME CASES. 

Active-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, and their 
participles, take the same case after as before them, when 
both words refer to the same thing : as, "He* returned a 
friend, who came a/oe." — Pope. " The child was named 
John" — " It could not be heP 



OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXI. 

Obs. 1. — The verbs described in this rule do not, like active-transitive 
verbs, require a regimen, or case after them ; but their finite tenses may 
be followed by a nominative, and their infinitives and participles by a 
nominative or an objective, explanatory of a noun or pronoun which 
precedes them. And as these cases belong after the verb or participle, 
they may in a certain sense be said to be governed by it. But the rule 
is perhaps more properly a rule of agreement \ the word which follows 



SYNTAX. SAME CASES. 183 

the verb or participle, may be said to be in apposition with that which pre- 
cedes it. [See Rule 3d.] 

Obs. 2. — In this rule the terms after and before refer rather to the 
order of the sense and construction, than to the placing of the words. The 
proper subject of the verb is the nominative to it, or before it, by Rule 
2d; and the other nominative, however placed, belongs after it, by Rule 
21st. In general, however, the proper subject precedes the verb, and the 
other word follows it, agreeably to the literal sense of the rule. But 
when the proper subject is placed after the verb, as in the nine instances 
specified under Rule 2d, the explanatory nominative, is commonly in- 
troduced still later; as, "But be thou an example of the believers." — 
1 Tim. iv. 12. 

Obs. 3. — In interrogative sentences, the terms are usually transposed, or 
both are placed after the verb ; as, 

" Whence, and what art thou, execrable shape 1" — Milton. 
" Art thou that traitor angel? art thou he?" — Idem. 

Obs. 4. — In a declarative sentence, there may be a rhetorical or poetical 
transposition of the terms ; as, "I was eyes to the blind, and feet was I to 
the lame." — Job, xxix. 15. 

w Far other scene is Thrasymene now." — Byron. 

Obs. 5. — In some peculiar constructions, both words naturally come be- 
fore the verb ; as, " I know not who she is." — " Inquire thou whose son the 
stripling is." — 1 Sam. xvii. 56. " Man would not be the creature which he 
now is." — Blair. " I could not guess who it should be." — Addison. And 
they are sometimes placed in this manner by hyperbaton, or transposition j 
as, "Yet He it is."' — Young. "No contemptible orator he was." — Dr, 
Blair. 

Obs. 6. — As infinitives and participles have no nominatives of their own, 
such as are not transitive in themselves, may take different cases after them; 
and, in order to determine what case it is that follows them, the learner must 
carefully observe what preceding word denotes the same person or thiag. 
This word being often remote and sometimes understood, the sense is the 
only clew to the construction. Examples : " Who then can bear the thought 
of being an outcast from his presence?" — Addison. "I cannot help being 
so passionate an admirer as I am." — Steele. " To recommend what the 
soberer part of mankind look upon to be a trifle." — Id. " It would be a ro- 
mantic madness, for a man to be a lord in his closet." — Id. " To affect to 
be a lord in one's closet, would be a romantic madness" In this last sen- 
tence, lord is in the objective after to be ; and madness in the nominative af- 
ter would be. 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXI. 
We did not know that it was him. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun him, which belongs after the neuter 
verb u-as, is in the objective case, and does not agree with the pronoun it, 
which belongs before it as the nominative ; both words referring to the same 
thing. But, according to Rule 21st, " Active-intransitive, passive, and neu- 
ter verbs, take the same case after as before them, when both words refer to 
the same thing." Therefore, him should be he ; thus, We did not know 
that it was he.] 

We thought it was thee. 

I would act the same part, if I were him. 

It could not have been her. 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It is not me that he is angry with. 

They "believed it to be I. 

It was thought to be him. 

If it had been her, she would have told us. 

We know it to be they. 

Whom do you think it is ? 

Who do you suppose it to be •? 

We did not know whom they were. 

Thou art him whom they described. 

Impossible ! it can't be me. 

Whom did he think you were ? 

Whom say ye that lam? 

RULE XXIL— OBJECTIVES. 

Prepositions govern the objective case : as, 

" Truth and good are one : 
And beauty dwells in them, and they in her> 
With like participation." — Akenside. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXII. 

Obs. 1. — Most of the prepositions may take the imperfect 'participle for 
their object; and some, the pluperfect: as, " On opening the trial, they ac- 
cused him ofJiaving defrauded them." — "A quick wit, a nice judgement, &c. 
could not raise this man above being received only upon the foot of contribu- 
ting to mirth and diversion." — Steele. And the preposition to is often follow- 
ed by an infinitive. But, as prepositions, when they introduce declinable 
words, or words that have cases, always govern the objective, there are prop- 
erly no exceptions to the foregoing rule. — Let not the learner suppose, that 
infinitives or participles, when they are governed by prepositions, are there- 
fore in the objective case ; for case is no attribute of either of them. They are 
governed as participles or as infinitives, and not as cases. The mere fact of 
government is so far from creating the modification governed, that it neces- 
sarily presupposes it to exist. 

Obs. 2. — Prepositions are sometimes elliptically construed with adjectives} 
as, in vain, in secret, at first, on high; i. e. in a vain manner, in secret 
places, at the first time, on high places. Such phrases imply time, place, de- 
gree, or manner, and are equivalent to adverbs. In parsing, the learner may 
supply the ellipsis. 

Obs. 3. — In a few instances prepositions precede adverbs; as, at once, 
from above, for ever. These should be united, and parsed as adverbs, or 
else the adverb must be parsed as a noun, according to observation 3d on 
Rule 15th. 

Obs. 4. — When nouns of time or measure are connected with verbs or ad- 
jectives, the prepositions which govern them, are generally suppressed : as, 
" We rode sixty miles that day ;" that is, " through sixty miles on that day." 
— " The wall is ten feet high ;" that is, " high to ten feet." In parsing, sup- 
ply the ellipsis ; or else you must take the time or measure adverbially, as 
relating to the verb or adjective qualified by it. Such expressions as, u A 
board of six feet long," — " A boy of twelve years old," are wrong. Strike oat 
of; or say, "A board of six feet in length" — "A boy of twelve years of 
age. 1 ' 



S YXTAX. OBJEC TI VES. 185 

Obs. 5. — After the adjectives like, near, and nigh, the preposition to or 
unto is often understood ; as, " It is like [to or unto] silver." — Allen. 
"How like the former!" — Dryden. "Near yonder copse." — Goldsmith. 
"Nigh this recess." — Garth. As similarity and proximity are relations^ 
and not qualities, it might seem proper to call like, near, and nigh, preposi- 
tions ; and some grammarians have so classed the last two. Dr. Johnson 
seems to be inconsistent in calling near a preposition in the phrase, " So 
near thy heart," and an adjective, in the phrase, "Being near their master!" 
We have not placed them with the prepositions for four reasons : (1.) be- 
cause they are sometimes compared; (2.) because they sometimes have ad- 
verbs evidently relating to them; (3.) because the preposition to or unto is 
sometimes expressed after them ; and. (4.) because the words which usually 
stand for them in the learned languages, are clearly adjectives. — Like when 
it expresses similarity of manner, and near and nigh when they express 
proximity of degree, are adverbs. 

Obs. 6. — The word worth is often followed by an adjective, or a par- 
ticiple, which it appears to govern ; as, "If your arguments produce no 
conviction, they are worth nothing to me." — Beattie. " To reign is 
worth ambition." — Milton. " This is life indeed, life worth preserving." 
— Addison. It is not easy to determine to what part of speech worth 
here belongs. Dr. Johnson calls it an adjective, but says nothing of the 
object after it, which some suppose to be governed by of understood. In 
this supposition, it is gratuitously assumed, that worth is equivalent to 
worthy, after which of should be expressed; as, "Whatsoever is worthy 
of their love, is worth their anger." — Denham. But, as worth appears to 
have no certain characteristic of an adjective, some call it a noun, and 
suppose a double ellipsis; as, "The book is [of the] worth [of] a dollar." 
This is still less satisfactory; and, as the whole appears to be mere 
guess-work, we see no good reason why worth is not a preposition, gov- 
erning the noun or participle. If an adverb precede worth, it may as 
well be referred to the foregoing verb, as when it occurs before any other 
preposition. 

Obs. 7. — Both Dr. Johnson and Home Tooke, (who never agreed if 
they could help it,) unite in saying that worth, in the phrases, " Wo 
worth the man," — "Wo worth the day," &c. is from the imperative of 
the Saxon verb wrythan or iveorthan, to be; i. e. "Wo be [to] the man," 
or, " Wo betide the man," &c. And the latter affirms, that, as by is 
from the imperative of bcon, to be, so with (though admitted to be some- 
times from withan, to join) is often no other than this same imperative verb 
wyrth or worth: if so, the words by, with, and worth, were originally synon- 
ymous, and should now be referred to one and the same class. The da- 
tive case, or oblique object which they governed as Saxon verbs, becomes 
their proper object, when taken as English jyrepositions ; and in this also 
they appear to be alike. 

Oes. 8. — After verbs of giving, procuring, and some others, there is usually 
an ellipsis of to or for before the objective of the person; as, " Give [to] 
him water to drink." — " Buy [for] me a knife." So in the exclamation, 
" Wo is me /" — meaning, " Wo is to me !" 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXII. 
It rests with thou and me to decide. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun thou is in the nominative case, and is 
governed by the preposition with. But, according to Rule 22d, " Preposi- 
tions govern the objective case." Therefore, tlvou should be Hue; thus, It 



rests with thee and me to decide.] 



16* 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Let that remain a secret between you and I. 
I lent the book to some one, I know not who. 
Let no quarrel occur among- ye. 
Who did he inquire for % Thou. 
From he that is needy turn not away. 
We are all accountable, each for his own act's. 
Does that boy know who he is speaking to % 
I bestow my favours on whosoever I will. 

RULE XXIIL— INFINITIVES. 

The preposition to governs the Infinitive mood, and 
commonly connects it to a finite verb: as, "I desire to 
learn? — Dr. Adam. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXIII. 

Obs. 1. — No word is more variously explained by grammarians, than 
this word to, which is prefixed to the verb in the infinitive mood. John- 
son, Walker, Scott, Todd, and other lexicographers, call it an adverb ; 
but, in explaining its use, they say it denotes certain relations, which it 
is not the office of an adverb to express. [See Johnson's Dictionary, 4to.] 
Lowth, Murray, Webster, Coar, Cornly, and others, call it a preposition; 
and some of these ascribe to it the government of the verb, and others 
do not. Lowth says, " The preposition to placed before the verb, makes 
the infinitive mood." Skinner, in his Canones Etymologici, calls it an 
equivocal article. Home Tooke, who shows that most of our conjunctions 
and prepositions may be traced back to ancient verbs and nouns, says 
that to has the same origin as do, and he seems to consider it an auxiliary 
verb. Many are content to call it a prefix, a particle, a sign of the infinitive, 
&c. without telling us why or how it is so, or to what part of speech it be- 
longs. If it be a part of the infinitive, it is a verb, and must be classed 
with the auxiliaries. Dr. Ash placed it among the auxiliaries ; but he says, 
the auxiliaries " seem to have the nature of adverbs." We have given in 
the preceding rule that explanation which we consider to be the most cor- 
rect and the most simple. Who first parsed the infinitive in this manner we 
know not ; the doctrine is found in several English grammars, one of which, 
written by a classical teacher, was published in London in 1796. — See 
Coar's Grammar, 12mo. p. 263. 

Obs. 2. — Most English grammarians have considered the word to as a 
part qf the infinitive ; and, like the teachers of Latin, have referred the 
government of this mood to a preceding verb. But the rule which they 
give is partial, and often inapplicable ; and their exceptions to it are nume- 
rous and puzzling. They teach that at least half the different parts of 
speech frequently govern the infinitive : if so, there should be a distinct rule 
for each ; for why should the government of one part of speech be made 
an exception to that of an other 1 and, if this be done, with respect to the 
infinitive, why not also with respect to the objective easel In all instances 
to which their rule is applicable, the rule here given amounts to the same 
thing ; and it obviates the necessity for their numerous exceptions, and the 
embarrassment arising from other constructions of the infinitive not noticed 
in them. 

Obs. 3. — The infinitive thus admits a simpler solution in English, than 
in most other languages. In French, the infinitive, though frequently 



SYNTAX. INFINITIVES. 187 

placed in immediate dependence on an other verb, may also be governed 
by several different prepositions, (as a, de, pour, sans, apres,) according to 
the sense.* In Spanish and Italian, the construction is similar. In Latin 
and Greek, the infinitive is, for the most part, dependent on an other verb. 
Bat, according to the grammars, it may stand for a noun in all the six cases ; 
and many have called it an indeclinable noun. See the Port Royal Latin 
and Greek Grammars ; in which several peculiar constructions of the infin- 
itive, are referred to the government of a preposition. 

Obs. 4. — Though the infinitive is commonly made an adjunct, to some 
finite verb, yet it may be joined to almost all the other parts of speech, or to 
an other infinitive ; as, 

1. To a noun ; as, " He had leave to go." 

2. To an adjective; as, " We were anxious to see you." 

3. To a pronoun; as, "I discovered him to be a scholar." 

4. To a verb in the infinitive; as, " To cease to do evil." 

5. To a participle; as, " Endeavouring to escape, he fell." 

6. To an adverb; as, ' : She is old enough to go to school." 

7. To a conjunction; as, " He knows better than to trust you." 

8. To a preposition ; as, "I was about to write." — Rev. x. 4. 

9. To an interjection; (by ellipsis ;) as, " O to forget her!" — Young. 
Obs. 5. — The infinitive is the mere verb, without affirmation ; and, in 

some respects, resembles a noun. It may stand for — 

1. A subject; as, " To steal is sinful." 

2. A predicate ; as, " To enjoy is to obey." — Pope. 

3. A purpose, or an end; as, " He's gone to do it." — Edgeworlh. 

4. An employment; as, " He loves to ride." 

5. A cause; as, u I rejoice to hear it." 

G. A coming event ; as, " A structure soon to fall." — Cowper. 

7. A term of comparison; as, " He was so much affected as to weep" 

Oes. G. — Anciently, the infinitive was sometimes preceded by for as well 

as to; as, "I went up to Jerusalem for to worship."— Acts } xxiv. 11. 

" What went ye out for to see 1"—Luke, vii. 26. 

-" Learn skilfullie how 



" Each grain for to laie by itself on a mow." — Tuss£r. 
Modern usage rejects the former preposition. 

Obs. 7. — The infinitive sometimes depends on a verb understood; as, . 
" To be candid with you, [/ confess] I was in fault," Some grammarians 
have erroneously taught that the infinitive in such sentences is put abso- 
lute. 

Obs. 8. — The infinitive, or a phrase of which the infinitive is a part, be- 
ing introduced apparently as the subject of a verb, but superseded by some 
other word, is put absolute, or left unconnected by pleonasm; as, 

" To &e, or not to be — that is the question." — Sftakspeare. 

Obs. 9. — The infinitive of the verb be, is often understood ; as, " I sup- 
pose it [to be] necessary." [See Obs. 2d on Rule xxiv.] 

Obs. 10. — The infinitive usually follows the word on which it depends ; 
but this order is sometimes reversed ; as, 

" To catch your vivid scenes, too gross her hand." — Thomson. 

* " La preposition, est un mot indeclinable, place devant les noms, les pro- 
noms, et les verbes, qu'elle regit. — The preposition is an indeclinable word placed 
before the nouns, pronouns, and verbs, which it governs." — Pernn's Gram- 
mar,?). 152. 

" Every verb placed immediately after an other verb, or after a preposition, 
ought to be put in the infinitive ; because it is then the regimen of the verb or 
preposition which precedes." — Gram, des Gram, par Girault Du Vivier, p. 774. 






188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXIII. 

Ought these things be tolerated ? 

[Not proper, because the infinitive be tolerated, is not preceded by the 
preposition to. But, according to Rule 23d, " The preposition to governs 
the infinitive mood, and commonly connects it to a finite verb." Therefore, 
to should be inserted ; thus, Ought these things to be tolerated ]] 

Please excuse my son's absence. 
Cause every man go out from me. 
Forbid them enter the garden. 
Do you not perceive it move ? 
Allow others discover your merit. 
He was seen go in at that gate. 
Permit me pass this way. 

RULE XXIV.— INFINITIVES. 

The active verbs bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, 
see, and their participles, take the Infinitive after them, 
without the preposition to : as, " If he bade thee depart. 
how darest thou stay ?" 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXIV. 

Obs. 1. — The preposition is almost always employed after the passive 
form of these verbs, and in some instances after the active: as, " He was 
heard to say." — "I cannot see to do it." — " What would dare to molest him 
who might call, on every side, to thousands enriched by his bounty T' — Dr. 
Johnson. 

Obs. 2. — The auxiliary be of the passive infinitive is also suppressed, 
after feel, hear 7 make^ and see*; as, "I heard the letter read" — not, "be 
read." 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXIV. 

They need not to call upon her. 

[Not proper, because the preposition to is inserted before call, which fol- 
lows the active verb need. But, according to Rule 24th, " The active verbs 
bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, and their participles, take the infini- 
tive after them, without the preposition to." Therefore to should be omitted ,• 
thus, They need not call upon her.] 

I felt a chilling sensation to creep over me. 

I have heard him to mention the subject. 

Bid the boys to come in immediately. 

I dare to say he has not got home yet. 

Let no rash promise to be made. 

We sometimes see bad men to be honoured. 

A good reader will make himself to be distinctly heard. 

RULE XXV.— NOM. ABSOLUTE. 
A noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, 



when its case depends on no other word : as, " He failings 



SYNTAX. NOM. ABSOLUTE. 189 

who shall meet success?" — "Your fathers, where are 
they? and the prophets, do they live forever?" — Zech. i. 5. 

" This said, he form'd thee, Adam ! thee, O man ! 
Dust of the ground !" — Milton. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXV. 

Obs. 1. — In parsing the nominative absolute, tell how it is put so, whether 
with a participle, by direct address, by pleonasm, or by exclamation ; for a 
noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, under the following 
Jour circumstances : 

1. When, with a participle, it is used to express a cause, or a concomitant 
fact; as, 

" Thou looking on, 

Shame to be overcome or overreach'd, 
Would utmost vigor raise." — Milton. 

2. When, by direct address, it is put in the second person, and set off 
from the verb by a comma; as, " At length, Seged, reflect and be wise." — 
Dr. Johnson. 

3. When, by pleonasm, it is introduced abruptly for the sake of emphasis; 
as, " He that is in the city, famine and pestilence shall devour him." — " Gad, 
a troop shall overcome him." — Gen. xlix. 19. " The north and the south, 
thou hast created them." — Psalm, lxxxix. 12. [See the figure Pleonasm, 
in part iv.] 

4. When, by mere exclamation, it is used without address, and without 
other words expressed or implied to give it construction ; as, 

" Oh ! deep enchanting prelude to repose, 
The dawn of bliss, the twilight of our woes !" — Campbell. 

Obs. 2. — The nominative put absolute with a participle, is equivalent to a 
dependent clause commencing with when, while, if, since, or because; as, 
" I being a child," — equal to, " When I was a" child." 

Obs. 3. — The participle being is often understood after nouns or pronouns 
put absolute ; as, 

" Alike in ignorance, his reason [ ] such, 

Whether he thinks too little or too much." — Pope. 

Obs. 4. — All nouns in the second person are either put absolute, according 
to Rule 25th, or in apposition with their own pronouns placed before them, 
according to Rule 3d: as, "This is the stone which was set at nought of 
you builders." — Acts. 

li Peace ! minion, peace ! it boots not me to hear 
The selfish counsel of you hangers-on." — Author. 

Obs. 5. — Nouns preceded by an article, are almost always in the third 
person; and, in exclamatory phrases, such nouns sometimes appear to 
have no determinable construction; as, " O the depth of the riches both of 
the wisdom and knowledge of God." — Rom. xi. 33. 

Obs. 6. — The case of nouns used in exclamations, or in mottoes and 
abbreviated sayings, often depends, or may be conceived to depend, on 
something understood ; and, when their construction can be satisfactorily 
explained on the principle of ellipsis, they are not put absolute. The 
following examples may perhaps be resolved in this manner, though the ex- 
pressions will lose much of their vivacity: "A horse! a horse! my king- 
dom for a horse!" — Shak. " Heaps upon heaps" — " SIcin for skin" — " An 
eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth" — " Day after day" — " World without 
end."— Bible. 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXV. 

Him having ended his discourse, the assembly dispersed. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun him, whose case depends on no other 
word, is in the objective case. But, according to Rule 25th, " A noun or a 
pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, when its case depends on no 
other word." Therefore, him should be he; thus, He having ended his dis- 
course, the assembly dispersed.] 

Me being young, they deceived me. 

Them refusing to comply, I withdrew. 

Thee being present, he would not tell what he knew. 

The child is lost ; and me, whither shall I go ? 

Oh happy us ! surrounded thus with blessings ! — Murray, 

" Thee too ! Brutus, my son !" cried Caesar overcome. 

But him, the chieftain of them all, 
His sword hangs rusting on the wall. 

Her quick relapsing to her former state, 
With boding fears approach the serving train. 

There all thy gifts and graces we display, 
Thee, only thee, directing all our way. 

RULE XXVI.— SUBJUNCTIVES. 

A future contingency is best expressed by a verb in the 
Subjunctive present ; and a mere supposition with indefi- 
nite time, by a verb in the Subjunctive imperfect : but a 
conditional circumstance assumed as a fact, requires the 
Indicative mood : as, " If thou forsake him, he will cast 
thee off forever." — " If it were not so, I would have told 
you." — " If thou went, nothing would be gained." — 
" Though he is poor, he is contented." 

NOTES TO RULE XXVI. 

Note I. — In connecting words that express time, the order 
and fitness of time should be observed. Thus : in stead of, 
11 I have seen him last week" say, " I saw him last week ;" and 
in stead of, " I saw him this week" say, " I have seen him this 
week" 

Note II. — Verbs of commanding, desiring, expecting, ho- 
ping, intending, permitting, and some others, in all their tenses, 
refer to actions or events, relatively present or future : one 
should therefore say, " I hoped you would come" — not, " would 
have come ;" and, a I intended to do it" — not, " to have done 
it ;" &c. 

Note III. — Propositions that are at all times equally true or 
false should generally be expressed in the present tense ; as, 



SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVES. 191 

" He seemed hardly to know, that two and two make four' — 
not j " madeP 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXVI. 

Examples under the first clause of Rule 26. 

He will not be pardoned, unless he repents. 

[Not proper, because the verb repents, which is used to express a future 
contingency, is in the indicative mood. But, according to the first clause of 
Rule 26th, " A future contingency is best expressed by a verb in the sub- 
junctive present." Therefore, repents should be repent; thus, He will not 
be pardoned, unless he repent.] 

He will maintain his cause, though he loses his estate. 
They will fine thee, unless thou offerest an excuse. 
I shall walk out in the afternoon, unless it rains. 
Let him. take heed lest he falls. 
On condition that he comes, I consent to stay. 
If he is but discreet, he will succeed. 
Take heed that thou speakest not to Jacob. 
I If thou castest me off, I shall be miserable. 
Send them to me, if thou pleasest. 
Watch the door of thy lips, lest thou utterest folly. 

Under the second clause of Rule 26. 

And so would I, if I was he. 

[Not proper, because the verb was, which is used to express a mere sup- 
position, with indefinite time, is in the indicative mood. But, according to 
the second clause of Rule 26th, "A mere supposition, with indefinite time, 
is best expressed by a verb in the subjunctive imperfect." Therefore-, was 
should be were; thus, And so would I, if I were he.] 

' If I was to write, he would not regard it. 

If thou feltest as I do, we should soon decide. 

Though thou sheddest thy blood in the cause, it would but 
prove thee sincerely a fool. 

If thou lovedst him, there would be more evidence of it. 

I believed, whatever was the issue, all would be well. 

If love was never feigned, it would appear to be scarce. 

There fell from his eyes as it had been scales. 

If he was an impostor, he must have been detected. 

Was death denied, all men would wish to die. 
' O that there was yet a day to redress thy wrongs ! 
1 Though thou wast huge as Atlas, thy efforts would be vain. 

Under the last clause of Rule 26. 

If he know the way, he does not need a guide. 

[Not proper, because the verb know, which is used to express a con- 

i ditional circumstance assumed as a fact, is in the subjunctive mood. But, 

according to the last clause of Rule 26th, " A conditional circumstance 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

assumed sis a fact, requires the indicative mood." Therefore, know should 
be knows; thus, If he knows the way, he docs not need a guide.] 

Though he seem to be artless, he has deceived us. 

If he think as he speaks, he may safely be trusted. 

Though this event be strange, it certainly did happen. 

If thou love tranquillity of mind, seek it not abroad. 

If seasons of idleness be dangerous, what must a continued 

habit of it prove? — Blair. 
Though he were a son, yet learned he obedience by the things 

which he suffered. 
I knew thou wert not slow to hear. 

Under Note 1. 

The work has been finished last week. 

He was out of employment this fortnight. 

This" mode of expression has been formerly in use. 

I should be much obliged to him if he will attend to it. 

I will pay the vows which my lips have uttered when I was 

in trouble. 
I have compassion on the multitude, because they continue 

with me now three days. 
I thought, by the accent, that he had been speaking to his child. 
And he that was dead sat up and began to speak. 
Thou hast borne, and hast patience, and for my name's sake 

hast laboured, and hast not fainted. — Rev. ii. 3. 
Ye will not come unto me that ye might have life. 
At the end of this quarter, I shall be at school two years. 
W"e have done no more than it was our duty to have done. 

Under Note 2. 

We expected that he would have arrived last night. 

Our friends intended to have met us. 

We hoped to have seen you. 

He would not have been allowed to have entered. 

Under Note 3. 

The doctor affirmed, that fever always produced thirst. 
The ancients asserted, that virtue was it own reward. 

PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX. 

LESSON I. 

[It is here expected that the learner will ascertain for himself the proper 
form of correcting each example, according to the particular Rule or Noto 
under which it belongs.] 

There is a spirit in man ; and the inspiration of the Almighty 
giveth them understanding. 



SYNTAX. PROMISCUOUS. 193 

My people doth not consider. 

I have never heard who they invited. 

Then hasten thy return ; for, thee away, 
Nor lustre has the sun, nor joy the day. 

I am as well as when you was here. 

That elderly man, he that came in late, I supposed to be the 
superintendent. 

All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fin- 
gers, but his follies and vices are innumerable. 

It must indeed be confessed that a lampoon or a satire do not 
carry in them robbery or murder. 

There was more persons than one engaged in this affair. 

A man who lacks ceremony, has need for great merit. 

A wise man avoids the showing any excellence in trifles. 

The most important and first female quality is sweetness of 
temper. 

We choose rather lead than follow. 

Ignorance is the mother of fear, as well as admiration. 

He must fear many, who many fear. 

Every one partake of honour bestowed on the worthy. 

The king nor the queen were not at all deceived. 

Was there no difference, there would be no choice. 

I had rather have been informed. 

Must thee return this evening ? 

Life and death is in the power of the tongue. 

I saw a person that I took to be she. 

Let him be whom he may, I shall not stop. 

This is certainly an useful invention. 

That such a spirit as thou dost not understand me. 

1 It is no more but justice,' quoth the farmer. 

LESSON II. 

Great improvements has been made. 
It is undoubtedly true what I have heard. 
The nation is torn by feuds which threaten their ruin. 
The account of these transactions were incorrect. 
Godliness with contentment are great gain. 
The number of sufferers have not been ascertained. 
There are one or more of them yet in confinement. 
They have chose the wisest part. 
He spent his whole life in doing of good. 
They know scarcely that temperance is a virtue. 
I. am afraid lest I have laboured in vain. 
Mischief to itself doth back recoil. 
This construction sounds rather harshly. 
What is the cause of the leaves curling ? 
Was it thee, that made the noise ? 

17 






194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Let thy flock clothe upon the naked. 

Wisdom and knowledge is granted unto thee. 

His conduct was surprising strange. 

This woman taught my brother and I to read. 

Let your promises be such that you can perform. 

We shall sell them in the state they now are. 

We may add this observation, however. 

This came in fashion when I was young. 

I did not use the leaves, but root of the plant. 

We have used every mean in our power. 

Pass ye away, thou inhabitant of Saphir. — Micah, i. 11. 

Give every syllable and every letter their proper sound. 

LESSON III. 

To know exactly how much mischief may be ventured upon 
with impunity, are knowledge enough for some folks. 

Every leaf and every twig teem with life. 

I was rejoiced at this intelligence. 

At this stage of advancement, there is little difficulty in the pu- 
pil's understanding the passive and neuter verbs. 

I was afraid that I should have lost the parcel. 

Which of all these patterns is the prettier ? 

They which despise instruction shall not be wise. 

Both thou and thy advisers have mistaken their interest. 

A idle soul shall suffer hunger. 

The lips of knowledge is a precious jewel. 

I and my cousin are requested to attend. 

Can only say that such is my belief. 

This is different from the conscience being made to feel. 

Here is ground for their leaving the world with peace. 

Where are you all running so fast ? 

A man is the noblest work of creation. 

Of all other crimes wilful murder is the most atrocious. 

The tribes whom I visited, are partially civilized. 

From hence I conclude they are in error. 

The girls' books are neater than the boys. 

I intended to have transcribed it. 

Shall a character made up of the very worst passions, pass un- 
der the name of a gentleman ? 

Rhoda ran in, and told how Peter stood before the gate. 

What is latitude and longitude ? 

Cicero was more eloquent than any Roman. 

Who dares apologize for Pizarro ? — who is but another name 
for rapacity ! 

LESSON IV. 

Tell rm whether you will do it or not 



SYNTAX. PROMISCUOUS. 195 

After the most straitest sect, I lived a Pharisee. 
We have no more but five loaves and two fishes. 
I know not who it was who did it. 

Doubt not, little though there be, 

But I'll cast a crumb to thee. — Langhorne. 

This rule is the best which can be given. 

I have never seen no other way. 

These are poor amends for the men and treasures which we 

have lost. 
Dost thou know them boys ? 
This is a part of my uncle's father's estate. 
Many people never learn to speak correct. 
Some people are rash, and others timid : those apprehend too 

much, these too little. 
Is it lawful for us to give tribute to Csesar or no ? 
It was not worth while preserving any permanent enmity. 
I no sooner saw my face in it, but I was startled at the shortness 

of it. 
Every person is answerable for their own conduct. 
They are men that scorn a mean action, and who will exert 

themselves to serve you. 
I do not recollect ever having paid it. 
The stoics taught that all crimes were equal. 
Every one of these theories are now exploded. 
Either of these four will answer. 
There is no situation where he would be happy. 
The boy has been detected in stealing, that you thought so 

clever. 
I will meet thee there if thee please. 
He is not so sick, but what he can laugh. 
These clothes does not fit me. 
The audience was all very attentive. 

Wert thou some star, which from the ruin'd roof 
Of shak'd Olympus by mischance didst fall ! — Milton. 

LESSON V. 

Was the master, or many of the scholars, in the room ? 
His father's and mother's consent was asked. 
Whom is he supposed to be % 
He is an old venerable man. 
It was then my purpose to have visited Sicily. 
It is to the learner only, and he that is in doubt, that this assist- 
ance is recommended. 
There are not the least hope of his recovery. 
Anger and impatience is always unreasonable. 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In his letters, there are not only correctness, but elegance. 

Opportunity to do good is the highest preferment which a no- 
ble mind desires. 

The year when he died, is not mentioned. 

Had I knew it, I should not have went. 

Was it thee, that spoke to me ? 

The house is situated pleasantly. 

He did it as private as he possibly could. 

Subduing our passions is the noblest of conquests. 

James is more diligent than thee. 

Words interwove with sighs found out their way. 

He appears to be diffident excessively. 

The number of our days are with thee. 

Like a father pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth them that 
fear him. — Fsalm, ciii. 13. 

The circumstances of this case, is different. 

Well for us, if some such other men should rise I 

A man that is young in years, may be old in hours, if he have 
lost no time. 

The chief captain, fearing lest Paul should have been pulled 
in pieces of them, commanded the soldiers to go down, and 
to take him by force from among them. — Acts, xxiii. 10. 

Nay, weep not, gentle Eros ; there is left us 
Ourselves to end ourselves. — Shaksjpeare. 

GENERAL RULE OF SYNTAX. 

In the formation of sentences, the consistency and adap* 
tation of all the words should be carefully observed ; and 
a regular, clear, and correspondent construction should be 
preserved throughout. 

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE SYNTAX. 

Obs. 1. — In proportion as the rules of Syntax are made few and general, 
they must be either vague or liable to exceptions. The number of the prin- 
ciples which deserve to be placed in the rules, is not fixed by any obvious 
distinction ; hence the diversity in the number of the rules as given by dif- 
ferent grammarians. In this matter a middle course seems to be best. We 
have therefore taken the parts of speech in their order, and comprised all 
the general principles of relation, agreement, and government, in twenty- 
six leading Rules. Of these rules, eight (namely, the 1st, the 4th, the 14th, 
the 15th, the 16th, the 17th, the 18th, and the 19th,) are used only in 
•parsing; two (namely, the 13th and the 26th,) are necessary only for the 
correction of false syntax ; the remaining sixteen answer the double purpose 
of parsing and correction. The Exceptions, of which there are twenty-four, 
belong to ten different rules. The Notes, of which there are eighty-seven, 
are subordinate rules of syntax, formed for the detection of errors. The 
Observations, of which there are about two hundred, are chiefly designed to 
explain the arrangement of words, and whatever is difficult or peculiar in 
construction. 



SYNTAX. GENERAL RULE. 197 

Ols. 2. — The General Rule of Syntax, being designed to meet every 
possible form of error in construction, necessarily includes all the par- 
ticular rules and notes. It is too broad to convey very definite instruc- 
tion, and ought not to be applied where a special rule or note is applicable. 
A few examples, not properly coming under any other head, will serve to 
show its use and application : such examples are given in the false syntax 
below. 

Obs. 3. — In the foregoing pages, the principles of syntax, or construe- 
turn, are supposed to be pretty fully developed ; but there may be in com- 
position many errors of such a nature that no rule of grammar can show 
what should be substituted. The greater the inaccuracy, the more difficult 
the correction ; because the sentence may require a change throughout. 
Thus, the following definition, though very short, is a fourfold solecism : 
" Number is the consideration of an object, as one or more." — Murray. This 
sentence, though written by one grammarian, and copied by twenty others, 
cannot be corrected but by changing every word in it: but this will of 
course destroy its identity, and form an other sentence, not an amendment. 
It is unfortunate for youth, that a volume of these incorrigible sentences 
might be culled from our grammars! Examples of false syntax cannot 
embrace what is either utterly wrong in thought, or utterly unintelligible 
in language; for the writer's meaning must be preserved in the correc- 
tion, and where no sense is discovered, particular improprieties can never 
be detected and proved. The sentence above is one which we cannot cor- 
rect ; but we can say of it— -first, that number in grammar can never be 
denned, because unity and plurality have no common property — secondly, 
that number is not consideration, in any sense of the word — thirdly, that 
an object is known to be one object, by mere intuition, ans. not by consider- 
ation — and, fourthly, that he who considers an object as more than one, mis- 
conceives it ! ! ! ! 

Obs. 4. — In the first eighteen rules, we have given the syntax of all 
the parts of speech in regard to relation and agreement. And, by pla- 
cing the rules in the order of the parts of speech, we hope to have re- 
lieved the pupil from all difficulty in recollecting the numbers by which 
they are distinguished ; for, in the exercise of parsing, it is very im- 
portant that the Rules be distinctly and accurately quoted by the pupil. 
Relation and agreement have been taken together, because they could 
not properly be separated. One word may relate to an other and not 
agree with it ; but there is never any necessa?~y agreement between words 
that have not a relation, or a dependence on each other according to the 
sense. 

Obs. 5. — The Ercglish language having few inflections, has also few 
concords or agreements. Articles, adjectives, and participles, which in 
many other languages agree with their nouns in gender, number, and 
case, have usually in English, no modifications in which they can agree 
with their nouns. Lowth says, "The adjective in English, having no 
variation of gender and number, cannot but agree with the substantive 
in these respects." What then is the agreement of words 1 Can it be any 
thing else than their similarity in some common property or modifica- 
tion 1 And is it not obvious, that no two things in nature can anywise 
agree or be alike, except in some quality or accident which belongs to 
each of them'? Yet how often have Murray and others, as well as Lowth, 
forgotten this ! To give one instance out of many : " Gender has respect 
only to the third person singular of the pronouns, he, she, it." — Murray, 
Pierce, Flint, Lyon, Bacon, Russell, Fish, Maltby, Alger, Miller, Mer- 
chant, Kirkham, and other idle copyists. Yet, according to these same 
gentlemen, "Gender is the distinction of nowu, with regard to sex;* 

17* 






198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and, " Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, and the nouns 
for which they stand, in gender." Now, not one of these three careless as- 
sertions can possibly be reconciled with either of the others ! ! ! 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER THE GENERAL RULE. 
If I can contribute to your and my country's glory. — Gold. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun your has not a clear and regular con- 
struction. But, according to the General Rule of Syntax, " In the forma- 
tion of sentences, the consistency and adaptation of all the words should be 
carefully observed ; and a regular, clear, and correspondent construction 
should be preserved throughout." The sentence having a double meaning, 
may be corrected in two ways ; thus, If I can contribute to our country s 
glory — or, If I can contribute to your glory and that of my country.] 

Is there, then, more than one true religion ? 

The laws of Lycurgus but substituted insensibility to enjoy- 
ment. — Goldsmith. 

Rain is seldom or ever seen at Lima. 

The young bird raising its open mouth for food, is a natural 
indication of corporeal want. — Car dell. 

There is much of truth in the observation of Ascham. — Id. 

Adopting the doctrine which he had been taught. — Id. 

This library exceeded half a million volumes. — Id. 

The Coptic alphabet was one of the latest formed of any. — Id. 

Many evidences exist of the proneness of men to vice. — Id. 

To perceive nothing, or not to perceive, is the same. 

The king of France or England was to be the umpire. 

He may be said to have saved the life of a citizen ; and, con- 
sequently, entitled to the reward. 

The men had made inquiry for Simon's house, and stood be- 
fore the gate. — Acts, x. 17. 

Give no more trouble than you can possibly help. 

The art of printing being then unknown, w r as a circumstance 
in some respects favourable to the freedom of the pen. 

An other passion which the present age is apt to run into, is 
to make children learn all things. — Goldsmith. 

It requires few talents to which most men are not born, or, at 
least, may not acquire. 

Nor was Philip wanting in his endeavours to corrupt Demos- 
thenes, as he had most of the leading men in Greece. — Gold* 
smith. 

The Greeks, fearing to be surrounded on all sides, wheeled 
about and halted, with the river on their backs. — Id. 

Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon the supplying of 
our wants ; and riches, upon enjoying our superfluities. 

That brother should not war with brother, 
And worry and devour each other. — Cowper* 



SYNTAX. PARSING. 199 

Such is the refuge of our youth and age ; 

The first from hope, the last from vacancy. — Byron. 

Triumphant Sylla ! couldst thou then divine, 

By ought than Romans Rome should thus be laid ? — Id. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

CHAPTER VIII.— SYNTACTICAL. 

In the Eighth Chapter are exemplified nearly all the 
Exceptions and Observations under the Rules of 
Syntax and the Notes. 

LESSON L— PROSE. 

The philosopher, the saint, or the hero — the wise, the good, 
or the great man — very often lies hid and concealed in a ple- 
beian, which a proper education might have disinterred and 
brought to light. — Addison. 

The long-suffering of God waited in the days of Noah, while 
the ark was a preparing. — 1 Pet. iii. 20. 

Mercy and truth are met together ; righteousness and peace 
have kissed each other. — Ps. lxxxv. 10. 

In vain do they worship me, teaching for doctrines the com- 
mandments of men. — Matt. xv. 9. 

Knowest thou not this of old, since man was placed upon the 
earth, that the triumphing of the wicked is short, and the joy of 
the hypocrite but for a moment? — Job, xx. 4, 5. 

They shall every man turn to his own people, and flee every 
one into his own land. — Isaiah, xiii. 14. 

Wherefore ye needs must be subject, not only for wrath, but 
also for conscience 1 sake. — Rom. xiii. 5. 

But Peter continued knocking ; and when they had opened 
the door, and saw him, they were astonished. — Acts, xii. 16. 

Ye have heard that it hath been said, 'An eye for an eye, 
and a tooth for a tooth.' — Matt. v. 38. [See Exod. xxi. 24.] 

For now I see through a glass darkly ; but then, face to face : 
now I know in part ; but then shall I know even as also I am 
known. — 1 Cor. xiii. 12. 

Every man should let his man-servant, and every man his 
maid-servant, being an Hebrew or an Hebrewess, go free ; that 
none should serve himself of them, to wit, of a Jew his brother. 
— Jer. xxxiv. 9. 

Then the king of Babylon 1 s army besieged Jerusalem : and 
Jeremiah the Prophet was shut up in the court of the prison 
which was in the king of Judahh house. — Jer. xxxii. 2. 

I Tertius, who wrote this epistle, salute you in the Lord.— 
Rom. xvi. 22. 

And this is the record of John, when the Jews sent priests 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and Levites from Jerusalem to ask him, { Who art thou V And 
he confessed, and denied not, but confessed, ' I am not the Christ' 
And they asked Him, i What then % art thou Elias V and he 
saith, ' I am not.' — < Art thou that prophet V and he answered, 
< No.'— John, L 19. 

The new moons and sabbaths, the catting of assemblies, 1 
cannot away with : it is iniquity, even the solemn meeting. — 
Isaiah, i. 13. 

LESSON II.— PROSE. 

The rudiments of every language, therefore, snust be given 
as a task, not as an amusement. — Goldsmith. 

Time we ought to consider as a sacred trust committed to us 
by God, of which we are now the depositaries, and [of which] 
we are to render an account at the last. — Blair. 

Thus Justice, properly speaking, is the only virtue ; and ai+ 
the rest have their origin in it. — Goldsmith. 

True generosity is a duty as indispensably necessary as those 
[which are] imposed upon us by law. — Id. 

To teach men to be orators, is little less than to teach them tc 
be poets. — Id. 

Lysippus is told that his banker asks a debt of forty pounds, 
and that a distressed acquaintance petitions for the same sum. 
He gives it, without hesitating, to the latter ; for he demands 
as a favour what the former requires as a debt. — Id. 

1 That I know not what I want,' said the prince, i is the cause 
of my complaint ; if I had any known want, I should have a 
certain wish ; that wish would excite endeavour ; and I should 
not then repine to see the sun move so slowly towards the west- 
ern mountain, or lament when the day breaks, and sleep will 
no longer hide me from myself.' — Dr. Johnson. 

' My friends, 1 said he, ' I have seriously considered our man- 
ners and our prospects ; and [I] find that we have mistaken 
our own interest. Let us therefore stop, while to stop is in our 
power.' — They stared awhile in silence one upon an other, and 
at last drove him away by a general chorus of continued laugh- 
ter. — Id. 

The laws of eastern hospitality allowed them to enter, and 
the master welcomed them, like a man liberal and wealthy. 
He was skilful enough in appearances soon to discern that they 
were no common guests, and spread his table with magnifi- 
cence. — Id. 

The year before, he had so used the matter, that, what by 
force, what by policy, he had taken from the Christians above 
thirty small castles. — Knolles. 

We exhorted them to trust in God, and to love one an other 
— /. Campbell. 



SYNTAX. PARSING. 201 

LESSON III.— POETRY. 

See the sole bliss Heaven could on all bestoic, 
Which who but feels, can taste, but thinks, can know ; 
Yet, poor with fortune, and with learning blind, 
The bad must miss, the good, untaught, will find. — Pope. 

There are, who, deaf to mad Ambition's call, 
Would shrink to hear th' obstrep'rous trump of fame ; 
Supremely bless'd, if to their portion fall 
Health, competence, and peace. — Beattie. 

The end and the reward of toil is rest. — Id. 

Shame to mankind ! Philander had his foes ; 
He felt the truths I sing, and I, in him : 
* But he, nor i" feel more. — Young. 

Lorenzo, to recriminate is just : 
Fondness for fame is avarice of air. — Id. 

Wrong he sustains with temper, looks on heaven, 
Nor stoops to think his injurer his foe. — Id. 

Amid the forms which this full world presents 
I Like rivals to his choice, what human breast 
i E'er doubts, before the transient and minute, 
\ To prize the vast, the stable, and sublime 1 — Akenside, 

Now fears in dire vicissitude invade ; 

The rustling brake alarms, and quiv'ring shade : 

Nor light nor darkness brings his pain relief; 

One shows the plunder, and one hides the thief.- — Johnson. 

So reads he nature, whom the lamp of truth 
Illuminates : — thy lamp, mysterious Word ! 
Which whoso sees, no longer wanders lost, 
With intellects bemaz'd in endless doubt, 
• But runs the road of wisdom. — Cowper. 

From education as the leading cause, 
The public character its colour draws ; 
Hence the prevailing manners take their cast,. 
-, Extravagant or sober, loose or chaste. — Id. 

Mercy to him that shows it, is the rule 

And righteous limitation of its act, 

By which heaven moves in pard'ning guilty man.-— Id. 

I Yet O the thought, that thou art safe, and he ! 
i That thought is joy, arrive what may to me. — Id. 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON IV.— POETRY. 

Then palaces and lofty domes arose ; 

These for devotion, and for pleasure those. — Blackmore. 

And O, poor hapless nightingale, thought I, 

How sweet thou singst, how near the deadly snare I — Milton. 

Give every man thine ear, hutfeto thy voice ; 

Take each man's censure, but reserve thy judgement. 

Neither a borrower nor a lender be ; 

For loan oft loseth both itself and friend. — Shakspeare. 

Sorrow breaks reasons, and reposing hours ; 

Makes the night morning, and the noon-tide night. — Id. 

Nor then the solemn nightingale ceased warbling. — Milton. 

The bless 1 d to-day is as completely so, 

As who began a thousand years ago. — Pope. 

Thus Virtue sinks beneath unnumber'd woes, 

When Passions, born her friends, revolt heroes. — Brown. 

Full many a gem of purest ray serene 

The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear ; 

Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 

And waste its sweetness on the desert air. — Gray 

Then kneeling down to heaven's eternal King, 
The saint, the father, and the husband prays ; 

Hope ' springs exulting on triumphant wing,' 

That thus they all shall meet in future days. — Bums. 

These are thy blessings, Industry ! rough power ; 

Whom labour still attends, and sweat, and pain. — Thomson. 

Sweet bird ! thy bow'r is ever green, 

Thy sky is ever clear ; 
Thou hast no sorrow in thy song, 

No winter in thy year. — Logan. 

Hark ! they whisper ; angels say, 

6 Sister spirit, come away !' 
What is this absorbs me quite, 

Steals my senses, shuts my sight ? — Pope. 



LESSON V.— POETRY. 

Oh fool ! to think God hates the worthy mind, 
The lover and the love of human kind, 
Whose life is healthful, and whose conscience clear, 
Because he wants a thousand pounds a year. — Pope. 






SYNTAX. QUESTIONS. 203 



He can't flatter, he ! 



An honest mind and plain ; he must speak truth : 
An they will hear it, so ; if not, he's plain. — Shak 

What ! canst thou not forbear me half an hour 1 
Then get thee gone, and dig my grave thyself. — Id. 

Remote from man, with God he pass'd his days, 
Prayer all his business, all his pleasure praise. — Parnell. 

Nature in silence bid the world repose : 
When near the road a stately palace rose. — Id. 

It chanc'd the noble master of the dome 

Still made his house tile wandering stranger's home. — Id. 

If still she loves thee, hoard that gem ; 
'Tis worth thy vanish'd diadem. — Byron. 

He calls for Famine, and the meagre fiend 
Blows mildew from-beiween his shrivell'd lips, 
And taints the golden ear. — Cowper. 

What-ho ! thou genius of the clime what-ho ! 

Li est thou asleep beneath these hills of snow ? — Dryden. 

Oh ! what a tangled web we weave, 
When first we practise to deceive ! — Scott 

Here he had need 

All circumspection ; and we now, no less, 
Choice in our suffrage ; for on whom we send, 
The weight of all, and our last hope relies. — Milton. 

Who wickedly is wise, or madly brave, 

Is but the more a fool, the more a knave. — Pope. 

To copy beauties, forfeits all pretence 

To fame ; — to copy faults, is want of sense. — Churchill. 

Whose freedom is by suff 'ranee, and at will 
Of a superior, he is never free. — Cowper. 

A field of corn, a fountain, and a wood, 

Is all the wealth by nature understood. — Cowley. 



QUESTIONS ON SYNTAX. 

LESSON I. — DEFINITIONS. 

Of what does syntax treat 1 

What is the relation of words 1 — the agreement of words ? — the government 
eff Wrda I— the arrangement of wwi ? 






204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

What is a sentence ? 

What are the principal parts of a sentence ? 

What are the other parts called ? 

How many kinds of sentences are there ? 

What is a simple sentence ? What is a compound sentence $ 

What is a clause ? What is a phrase ? 

What words must be supplied in parsing ? 

LESSON II. — THE RULES. 

How many special rules of syntax are there ? 

Of what do the first eighteen rules of syntax treat 1 

Of what do the last eight rules principally treat ? 

Where is the arrangement of words treated of 7 

To what do articles relate ? 

What case is employed as the subject of a verb'? . 

What agreement is required between words in apposition 1 

To what do adjectives relate 1 ? 

How does a pronoun agree with its antecedent ? 

How does a pronoun agree with a collective noun ? 

How does a pronoun agree with joint antecedents ? 

How does a pronoun agree with disjunct antecedents'? 

LESSON III. — THE RULES. 

How does a verb agree with its subject or nominative ? 
How does a verb agree with a collective noun ? 
How does a verb agree with joint nominatives'? 
How does a verb agree with disjunct nominatives'? 
What agreement is required, when verbs are connected ? 
How are participles employed? 
To what do adverbs relate ? 
What is the use of conjunctions ? 
What is the use of prepositions ? 
To what do interjections relate ? 

LESSON IV. — THE RULES. 

By what is the possessive case governed 1 

W T hat case do active-transitive verbs govern ? 

What case is put after other verbs ? 

What case do prepositions govern ? 

What governs the infinitive mood ? 

What verbs take the infinitive after them without the preposition to ? 

When is a noun or pronoun put absolute ? 

When should the subjunctive mood be employed ? 

LESSON V. — THE RULES. 

What are the several titles, or subjects, of the twenty-six rules ? 

What says Rule 1st?— Rule 2d ?— Rule 3d ?— Rule 4th?— Rule 5th 1— 
Rule 6th ?— Rule 7th ?— Rule 8th ?— Rule 9th ?— Rule 10th ?— Rule 11 th 1 
—Rule 12th?— Rule 13th?— Rule 14th?— Rule 15th?— Rule 16th?— 
Rule 17th?— Rule 18th?— Rule 19th?— Rule 20th ?— Rule 21st ?— Rule 
22d?— Rule 23d?— Rule 24th?— Rule 25th?— Rule 26th? 

LESSON VI. — PARSING. 

What has the sense to do with syntax, or with parsing ? 
What is required of the pupil in syntactical parsing ? 



SYNTAX. EXERCISES. 205 

How is the following sentence parsed 1 " This enterprise, alas ! will never 
compensate us for the trouble and expense with which it has been at- 
tended." 

[Now parse, in like manner, and with no needless deviations from the 
form, the thirty-one lessons of the Seventh Chapter ; or, (if the teacher pre- 
fer it,) first take the Italic words only, and afterwards explain all fJie words } SiS 
they come in succession.] 

LESSON VII. — EXCEPTIONS. 

How many and what exceptions are there to Rule 1st 1 — to Rule 2d ? — to 
Rule 3d 1— to Rule 4th 1— to Rule 5th 1— to Rule 6th 1— to Rule 7th 1— - 
to Rule 8th 1— to Rule 9th?— to Rule 10th?— to Rule 11th 1— to Rule 
12th 1— to Rule 13th 1— to Rule 14th ?— to Rule 15th ]— to Rule 16th 1— 
to Rule 17th 1— to Rule 18th 1 

[Now explain and correct orally all the false syntax placed under the 
Rules and Notes ; learning for each lesson about thirty examples, and reci- 
ting them without recurrence to the Key during the exercise.] 

LESSON VIII. — OBSERVATIONS. 

What is observed of the placing of Articles 1 — Nominatives ? — Words in Ap- 
position 7 — Adjectives 1 — Pronouns 1 — Verbs 1 — Participles 1 — Adverbs 1 
— Conjunctions ? — Prepositions ? — Interjections ? — Possessives 1 — Objec- 
tives 1 — Same Cases ? — Infinitives'? 

Under how many and what circumstances are nouns put absolute'? 

[Now read all the other observations, so as to be able to refer to them if 

necessary ; and then parse the five lessons of the Eighth Chapter.] 

EXERCISES II¥ SYNTAX, 

HiT [When the pupil has been sufficiently exercised in syntactical par- 
sing, and has corrected orally, according to the formules given, all the ex- 
amples of false syntax designed for oral exercises ; he should write out the 
following exercises, correcting them according to the principles of syntax 
given in the rules and notes.] 

EXERCISE I.— ARTICLES. 

Christianity claims an heavenly origin. 
An useless excellence is a contradiction in terms. 
It would have an happy influence on genius. 
Part not with a old friend for an new acquaintance. 
Justice eyes not the parties, but cause. 
I found in him a friend, and not mere promisor. 
These fathers lived in the fourth and following century. 
The rich and poor are seldom intimate. 
The Bible contains the Old and the New Testaments. 
An elegant and florid style are very different. 
The humility is a deep which no man can fathom. 
The true cheerfulness is the privilege of the innocence. 
A devotion is a refuge from a human frailty. 
The duplicity and the friendship are not congenial. 
The familiarity with the vicious fosters a vice. 
A forced happiness is a solecism in the terms. 

18 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The favourites are generally the objects of the envy. 

An equivocation is a mean and a sneaking vice. 

He sent an other and rather a more modest letter. 

The flatterers are put to a flight by an adversity. 

An obstinacy is unfavourable to the discovery of the truth. 

The conic sections are a part of the geometry. 

What is the proper meaning of a Landgrave ? 

Sensuality is one kind of pleasure, such an one as it is. 

What sovereign -assumes the title of an Autocrat? 

Believe me, the man is less a fool than a knave. 

He is a much deeper deceiver than a sufferer. 

Laziness is a greater thief than pickpocket. 

Heroes who then flourished, have passed away. 

Time which is to come, may not come to us. 

EXERCISE II.— NOUNS. 

A friend should bear a friends infirmities\ 

Deviations' from rectitude are approaches to sin. 

Crafty person's often entrap themselves. 

Mens mind's seem to be somewhat variously constituted. 

The great doctors, adept's in science, often disagree. 

The two men were ready to cut each others' throats. 

We went at the rate of five mile an hour. 

His income is a thousand pound a year. 

Five bushel of wheat are worth forty shilling. 

Reading is one mean of acquiring knowledge. 

The well is at least ten fathom deep. 

I shall be a hundred mile off by that time. 

Wisdom and Folly's votaries travel different roads. 

The true philanthropist is all mankind's friend. 

He desires the whole human race's happiness. 

The idler and the spendthrift's faults are similar. 

A good mans words inflict no injury. 

Be not generous at other peoples expense. 

True hope is swift, and flies with swallows wings. 

Lifes current holds its course, and never returns. 

Many assume Virtues livery, who shun her service. 

I left the parcel at Richardson's, the bookseller's. 

The books are for sale at Samuel Wood's & Sons' 

Where shall we find friendship like David's and Jonathan's ? 

Acquiesce for peace's and harmony's sake. 

The moons disk often appears larger than the sun. 

Consult Sheridan, Johnson, and Walker's Dictionary. 

Such was my uncle's agent's wife's economy. 

A frugal plenty marks the wise mans board. 

This mob, for honesty sake, broke open aU the prisons. 



SYNTAX. EXERCISES. 207 

Our sacks shall be a mean to sack the city. 
Such \vas the economy of the wife of the agent of my uncle. 
These emmet's, how little they are in our eyes ! 
Childrens minds may be easily overloaded. 

EXERCISE III— ADJECTIVES. 

A palmistry at which this vermin are very dexterous. 

These kind of knaves I know. — Shakspeare. 

Vanity has more subjects than any of the passions. 

The vain are delighted with fashionable and new dresses. 

So highly did they esteem this goods. 

Washington has been honoured more than any American. 

Which is the loftier of the Asiatic mountains? 

This ashes they were very careful to preserve. 

Is not she the younger of the three sisters ? 

Could not some less nobler plunder satisfy thee % 

I can assign a more satisfactory and stronger reason. 

Peter was older than any of the twelve apostles, 

Peace of mind is easier lost than gained. 

Of this victuals he was always very fond. 

Man has more wants than any animal. 

Of all other practical rules this is the most complex. 

Is not French more fashionable than any language % 

Vice never leads to old honoured age. 

Cloths of a more inferior quality are more salable. 

This is found in no book published previous to mine. 

He turned away with the most utmost contempt. 

Time glides swift and imperceptible away. 

Of their more ulterior measures I know nothing. 

My three last letters were never answered. 

Fortune may frown on the most superior genius. 

It becomes a gentleman to speak correct. 

The most loftiest mountain is Mont Blanc. 

If a man acts foolish, is he to be esteemed wise ? 

Drop your acquaintance with them bad boys. 

They sat silently and motionless an hour and a half. 

Quiet minds, like smooth water, reflect clear. 

True faith, true policy, united ran ; 

This was but love of God 7 and that of man. 

EXERCISE IV.— PRONOUNS 

Him that presumes much, has much to fear. 
They best can bear reproof, whom merit praise. 
A few pupils, older than me, excited my emulation. 
Every man will find themselves in the state of Adam, 
i None are more rich than them who are content. 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Scotland and thee did in each other live. 

These trifles they do not deserve our attention. 

Truth is gver to be preferred for its own sake. 

Thou art afraid — else, what ails you ? 

It is not Lemuel, but God, whom you have offended. 

All things which have life, aspire to God. 

So great was the multitude who followed him. 

He which would advance, should not look backwards. 

It was Sir Billy — who is an other name for a fop. 

I take up the arguments in the order they stand. 

There is nothing, with respect to me, and such as me. 

He that is bribed, the people will abhor. 

The day when the accident happened, is not recorded. 

We know not who to trust ; them who seem fair, are false. 

The reason I told it, was this ; thee was in danger. 

I did not know the precise time when it occurred. 

Here he answers the question, who asks it. 

Who who beheld the outrage, could remain inactive ? 

This was the prison where we were confined. 

I could not believe but what it was a reality. 

It was the boys, and not the dog, which broke the basin. 

An unprincipled junto is not nice about their means. 

The people forced its way, and demanded its rights. 

Avoid lightness and frivolity : it is allied to folly. 

Either wealth or power may ruin their possessor. 

It was Joseph, him whom Pharaoh promoted. 

Origen's mother hid his clothes, to prevent him going. 

Him that withholdeth corn, the people shall curse him. 

He that withholdeth corn the people shall curse. 

I have always thought ye honest till now. 

Me being but a boy, they took no notice of me. 

They that receive me, I will richly reward. 

Had it been them, they would have stopped. 

Vain pomp and glory of this world, I hate ye. 

It was not me, that gave you that answer. 

Between you and I, he is a greater thief than author. 

Any dunce can copy what you or me shall write, 

You seem to forget who you are talking to. 

Thee being a stranger, the child was afraid. 

This was the most remarkable event which occurred. 

Happy are them whose pleasure is their duty. 

EXERCISE V.— VERBS. 

Where was you standing during the transaction ? 
Was you there when the pistol was fired ? 
Thou sees how little difference there are. 



SYNTAX. EXERCISES. 209 

If he have failed, it was not through my neglect. 

Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 

There was many reasons for not disturbing my repose. 

The train of brass artillery and other ordnance, are immense* 

Art thou the man that earnest from Judah % 

What eye those long, long labyrinths dare explore % 

Magnus and his friends was barbarously treated. 

The propriety of these restrictions, are unquestionable. 

And I am one that believe the doctrine. 

Thou wast he that leddest out and broughtest in Israel, 

Beauty without virtue generally prove a snare. 

If thou means to advance, eye those before thee. 

A qualification for high offices, come not of indolence. 

The desires of right reason is bounded by competency. 

Useless studies is nothing but a busy idleness. 

Is virtue, then, and piety the same % 

So awful an admonition was these miraculous words. 

If the great body of the people thinks otherwise. 

A committee are a body that have only a delegated power. 

In peace of mind consists our strength and happiness. 

There is no slander, where love and unity is maintained. 

His character, as well as his doctrines, were assailed. 

Proof, and not assertion, are what are required. 

Right reason and truth is always in unison. 

No pains nor cost were spared to make it grand. 

Ignorance stupifies, and is the source of many crimes. 

Then wanders forth the sons 



Of Belial, flown with insolence and wine. 

What you must chiefly rely on, is the attested facts. 
No axe or hammer have ever awakened an echo here. 
Did not she send, and gave you this information % 
Their honours are departing and come to an end. 
Neither wit, nor taste, nor learning, appear in it. 
Caligula sat himself up for a deity. 
A tortoise requested the eagle to learn him to fly. 
' O, that it was always spring P said little Robert. 
I at first intended to have arranged it in a new form. 
The gaoler supposed that the prisoners had been fled. 
Peter saw a vessel, as it had been a great sheet. 
Peace and esteem is all that age can hope. 

Alas ! no wife or mother's care 
For him the milk or corn prepare. 

Thou bark that sails with man ! 
Haste, haste to cleave the seas. 
is* 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE VL— PARTICIPLES. 

What dost thou mean by shaking of thy head ? 

A good end warrants not using bad means. 

Be cautious in forming of connexions. 

The worshiping the two calves was still kept up. 

In reading of his lecture, he was much embarrassed. 

This devoting ourselves to God, must be habitual. 

Their estimating the prize too highly, was evident. 

He declared the project to be no less than a tempting God. 

Every deviation from virtue is approaching to vice. 

It is extremely foolish boasting of immoral achievements, 

It was the refusing all communion with paganism. 

Our deepest knowledge is knowing ourselves. 

He wilfully neglects the obtaining unspeakable good. 

Retaliating injuries is multiplying offences. 

These things are certain : there is no denying facts. 

Publicly vindicating error is openly adopting it. 

On his father asking him who it was, he answered, 4 1. 1 

Thus shall we escape being defeated and ruined. 

Being unjustly liberal is ostentatious pride. 

Wisdom teaches justly appreciating of all things. 

The procuring these benefits, was a gratuitous act. 

Doing good, disinterested good, is not our trade. 

Such a renouncing the world is a pernicious delusion. 

Freely indulging the appetite impairs the intellect 

The Acts mention Paul preaching of Christ at Damascus. 

The Acts mention Paul's preaching Christ at Damascus. 

The Acts mention Paul preaching Christ at Damascus. 

Constantly beholding objects prevents our admiring them. 

We purpose taking that route when we go. 

What was the cause of the young woman fainting ? 

I perceived somebody's creeping through the fence. 

I was aware of them intending to arrest me. 

We saw some mischievous boys 7 worrying of a cat. 

To pursue fashion, is chasing a bird on the wing. 

Being very positive, is no real proof of a stable mind. 

By establishing good laws, our peace is secured. 

Distinctness is important in delivering orations. 

He guarantied the permission we demanded being granted. 

For the easier reading the numbers in the table. 

Recovering the first surprise, however, we entered boldly. 

EXERCISE VIL— ADVERBS, &c. 

Respect is lost often by the means used to obtain it. 
Such were the views of the then ministry. 
Raillery must be very nice to not cfTend. 



SYNTAX. EXERCISES. 2 11 

Ye know how that it is an unlawful thing. 

From hence I infer that they were going there. 

Quaint sayings are long remembered often. 

I cannot tell you whether this is the fact or no. 

Valleys are more fertile generally than mountains. 

A qualification of usefulness is acquired with study. 

Frequent transgression makes men slaves of sin. 

Let nothing induce you ever to utter a falsehood. 

The idle are, of necessary consequence, ignorant. 

The wind came about so as we could make no way. 

Zealots seldom are distinguished by charity. 

Study is as necessary and even more so than instruction. 

I never have, and never shall be compensated. 

Humility neither seeks the first place or the last word. 

He has never told me nothing more of the matter. 

These men ranked highly among the nobility. 

Their bodies are so solid and hard, as you need not fear. 

Of her brother's political life previously to this event. 

Attainments made easily, are not of much value often. 

He has no other merit but that of a compiler. 

Venus appears uncommonly brightly to-night. 

Men cannot be forced neither into or out-of true faith. 

To this man we may commit safely our cause. 

One crime cannot be a proper remedy to another, 

Venus is not quite as large as the Earth. 

It is thinking makes what we read our own. 

Quagmires have smooth surfaces commonly. 

He was so much offended, as he would not speak to me. 

I have put my words in thy mouth. 

How wilt thou put thy trust on Egypt for chariots ? 

EXERCISE VIIL— PROMISCUOUS. 

In his fathers reign, they were connected and joined. 

What is the Earth and its dimensions? 

He is a great deal heavier man than I. 

The citizens w r ere never denied the privilege. 

Thankful to Heaven that thou wert left behind. 

I have met with few r who understood men equal to him. 

He was then recently returned from the east victorious. 

He hoped that money should have been given him. 

Laws may, and frequently are made against drunkenness 

He appeared in an human shape. 

I do not attempt explaining the mysteries of religion. 
Ere matter, time, or place were known, 
Thou sway'dst these spacious realms alone. 

One of the wisest persons that hath been among them. 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

What is it else but to reject all authority ? 

They advocate distinctions unworthy any free state. 

It would not, and ought not, be felt. 

Them who saw the disaster, were greatly alarmed. 

He knew none fitter to be their judge but himself. 

Record the names of every one present. 

"We doubt not but we will satisfy the impartial. 

But time and chance happeneth to them all. 

You was in hopes to have succeeded to the inheritance. 

To make light of a small fault, are to commit a greater. 

Judge not before hearing of the cause. 

Clear articulation is requisite in publicly speaking. 

God is the avenger of all breach of faith and injustice. 

I had a letter began, and nearly half wrote. 

It is better being suspected than being guilty 

Declare the past and present state of things. 

To insult the afflicted are impious and barbarous. 

Goodness, and not greatness, lead to happiness. 

It is pride who whispers, ' What will they think of me V 

In judging of others, charity should be exercised. 

Zanies are willing to befool, to please fools. 

Questions are easier proposed than answered rightly. 

He forms his schemes the flood of vice to stem, 
But preaching Jesus is not one of them. — J. Taylor. 

EXERCISE IX.— PROMISCUOUS. 

The property of the rebels were confiscated. 

He was extreme covetous in all his dealings. 

There were no less than thirty islands. 

The plot was the easier detected. 

Of all the books mine has the fewer blots. 

Who does the house belong to ? 

Is this the person whom you say was present? 

Knowledge is only to be acquired by application. 

Policy often prevails upon force. 

These men were seen enter the house in the night. 

These works are Cicero, the most eloquent of men's. 

Thomas has bought a bay large horse. 

Your gold and silver is cankered. 

Now abideth faith, hope, and charity. 

And, him destroyed, all this will follow. 

There is no need for your assistance. 

To whom our fathers would not obey. 

Where can we find such an one as this ? 

They sat out early on their journey, 

Philosophers have often mistook the source of happiness. 



SYNTAX. EXERCISES. 213 

The books are as old, and perhaps older, than tradition. 

This chapter is divided in sections. 

I shall treat you as I have them. 

A prophet mightier than him. 

Neither he or his brother is capable of it. 

Richelieu profited of every circumstance. 

What was the cause of the girl screaming 1 

Let him and I have half of them. 

I wrote to, and cautioned the captain against it. 

Nothing is more lovelier than virtue. 

He that is diligent you should commend. 

They ride faster than us. 

Which of them grammars do you like best ? 

Neither of these are the meaning intended. 

Did you understand who I was speaking of? 

Whosoever of you will be chiefest, shall be servant of all. 

Remember what thou wert, and be humble. 

Was I deceived % or did a sable cloud 

Turn forth her silver lining on the night ? — Milton. 

EXERCISE X.— PROMISCUOUS. 

Changed to a worser shape thou canst not be. 

For him through hostile camps I bend my way, 
For him thus prostrate at thy feet I lay.— Pope, i 

Thus oft by mariners are shown 

Earl Godwin's castles overflown. — Swift. 

No civil broils have, since his death, arose. 

Nor thou, that flings me floundering from thy back. 

Who should I see but the doctor ! 

That which once was thee. 

To wish him wrestle with affection. 

So much she fears for William's life, 

That Mary's fate she dare not mourn. — Prior. 

Phalaris, who was so much older than her. 
They would have given him such satisfaction in other particu- 
lars, as a full and happy peace must have ensued. 
The woman which we saw, is very amiable. 
The three first classes have read. 
An union in that which is permanent. 
Among every class of people self-interest prevails. 
Such conduct is a disgrace of their profession. 
His education has been neglected much. 
There is no other bridge but the one we saw. 
He went and laid down to sleep. 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Whom do men say that I am ? 

Take to you handfuls of ashes of the furnace, and let Moses 
sprinkle it towards the heaven in the sight of Pharaoh. 

In eulogizing of the dead, he slandered the living. 

If a dog both give the first turn and the last, he shall win. 

Neither the virtuous or the vicious are exempt from trials. 

He spoke as if he was in a passion. 

Let him take heed lest he fails. 

We have ail swerved out-of the path of duty. 

I cannot agree with him neither. 

He both wrote sermons and plays. 

If a man say, ' I love God,' and hateth his brother, he is a liar. 

He has long ago forsaken that party. . 

It was proved to be her that opened the letter. 

Is not this the same man whom we met before ? 

I forego my claim for peace's sake. 

For thou art a girl as much brighter than her, 
As she was a poet sublimer than me. — Prior. 

EXERCISE XI.— PROMISCUOUS. 

There remains two points to be settled. 

I could not avoid frequently using it. 

The Athenians were naturally obliging and agreeable ; they 
were cheerful among each other, and humane to their infe- 
riors. — Goldsmith. 

I hope it is not me thou art displeased with. 

I never before saw such large trees. 

My paper is Ulysses his bow, in which every man of wit and 
learning may try his strength. — Addison. 

'Twas thee, whom once Stagyra's grove 

Oft with her sage allur'd to rove. — Scott of Amwell. 

I could not observe by what gradations other men proceeded 
in their acquainting themselves with truth. — Locke. 

I will show you the way how it is done. 

Imprinting, if it signify any thing, is nothing else but the ma 
king certain truths to be perceived. — Locke. 

This arose from the young man associating with bad people. 

Him that never thinks, never can be wise. 

It was John's the Baptist head that was cut off 

The Jews are Abraham's, Isaac's, and Jacob's posterity. 

Two architects were once candidates for the building a certain 
temple at Athens. 

This treatise is extreme elaborate. 

Them descending, the ladder fell. 

The scaling ladder of sugared words are set against them. 



SYNTAX. EXERCISES. 215 

One or both was there. 

What sort of an animal is that ? 

These things should be never separated. 

His excuse was admitted of by his master. 

It is not me that he is engaged with. 

I intended to have rewarded him according to his merits. 

They would become sooner proficients in Latin. 

There is many different opinions concerning it. 

There are many in town richer than her. 

Let you and I be as little at variance as possible. 

A coalman, by waking of one of these gentlemen, saved him 

from ten years imprisonment. 
If a man's temper was at his own disposal, he would not choose 

to be of either of these parties. 

The birds their notes renew, and bleating herds 
Attest their joy, that hill and valley rings. — Mttf,on. 

EXERCISE XIL— PROMISCUOUS. 

But we of the nations beg leave to differ with them. 
This is so easy and trivial, as it is a shame to mention it. 
You was once quite blind ; you neither saw your disease or 
your remedy. 

Fluttering his pennons vain, plumb down he drops 
Ten thousand fathom deep. — Milton. 

The properties of the mirror depends on reflected light. 
Was you present at the last meeting % 
Hence has arisen much stiffness and affectation. 
The nation are powerful both by sea and land. 
Those set of books was a valuable present. 
The box contained forty piece of muslin. 
She is much the taller of the three. 
They are both remarkable tall men. 
A mans manners may be pleasing, whose morals are bad- 
True politeness has its seat in the heart. 
He presented him a humble petition. 
I do not intend to turn a critic on this occasion. 
At first sight we took it to be they. 
The certificate was wrote on parchment. 
I have often swam across the river. 
I have written four long letters yesterday. 
I expected to have seen you last week, but I was disappointed 
We are besat by dangers on all sides. 
My father and kim were very intimate. 
Unless he acts prudently he will not succeed. 
It was no sooner said but done. 



216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Let neither partiality or prejudice appear. 

The obligation was ceased long before. 

How exquisitely is this all performed in Greek ! 

Who, when they came to mount Ephraim, to the house of 

Micah, they lodged there. 
I prevailed with your father to consent. 
Always act as justice and honour requires. 
Them that transgress the rules, will be punished. 
With him is wisdom and strength. 
My conductor answered that it was him. 

Be thou, O lovely isle ! forever true 

To him who more than faithful was to you. — Southwich 

The joys of love, are they not doubly thine, 

Ye poor ! whose health, whose spirits ne'er decline ? — Id. 

EXERCISE XI1L— PROMISCUOUS. 

Having once suffered the disgrace, it is felt no longer. 

The meanness or the sin will scarce be dissuasives. 

Both temper and distemper consists of contraries. 

Which is the cause, the writer or the reader's vanity ? 

The commission of a generalissimo was also given him. 

The queen's kindred is styled gentlefolks. 

They agree as to the fact, but differ in assigning of reasons. 

Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now perished. 

The inquiry is worthy the attention of every scholar. 

Young twigs are easier bent than boughs. 

It is not improbable but there are more attractive powers. 

By this means an universal ferment was excited. 

Who were utterly unable to pronounce some letters, and others 

very indistinctly. — Sheridan. 
Ail vessels on board of which any person has been sick or 

died, perform quarantine. 
Serverus forbid his subjects to change their religion for that of 

the Christian or Jewish. — Jones's Ch. Hist. 
Magnus, with four thousand of his supposed accomplices, were 

put to death without a trial. — Id. 
Art not thou that Egyptian which before these days madest an 

uproar, and leddest out into the wilderness four thousand 

men that were murderers ? — Acts, xxiii. 38. 
Attempting to deceive children into instruction of this kind, is 

only deceiving ourselves. — Goldsmith. 
There came a woman, having an alabaster box of ointment of 

spikenard, very precious ; and she brake the box and poured 

it on his head. — Mark, xiv. 3. 
My essays, of all my other works, are the most current. 



SYNTAX. EXERCISES. 217 

We woul 7 su Lee of every member, individu- 

.; influence. 

Tny sumptuous buiidings, and thy wife's attire, 
Hatn cost a mass of public treasure. — Skakspeare. 

EXERCISE XIV.— PROMISCUOUS. 

This people who knoweth not the law, are cursed. 
The people shall be forgiven their iniquity. — Bible. 
Having been denied tne favours which they were promised. 

Rosaline, this favour thou shalt wear ; 

Hold, take you this, my sweet, and give me thine. 

Rely not on any man's fidelity, who is unfaithful to God 

The rules are full as concise, and more clear than before. 

For they knew ail that his father was a Greek. — Acts. 

Thrice was Cassar offered the crown. 

For a mine undiscovered, neither the owner of the ground, or 
way body else, are ever the richer. 

Death may be sudden to him, though it comes by never so 
slow degrees. 

A brute or a man are an other thing when they are alive, from 
what they are when dead. — Hale. 

I have known the having confessed inability, become the occa- 
sion of confirmed impotence. — Taylor. 

I am exceeding joyful in all our tribulation. — 2 Cor. vii. 4. 

If so much power, wisdom, goodness, and magnificence, is dis- 
played in the material creation, which is the least considerable 
part of the universe ; how great, how wise, how good must 
he be, who made and governs the whole ! 

A good poet no sooner communicates his works, but it is imag- 
ined he is a vain young creature, given up to the ambition 
of fame. — Pope. 

This was a tax upon himself for the not executing the laws. 

O my people, that dwellest in Zion ! be not afraid. — Bible, 

As rushing out-of doors, to be resolved, 

If Brutus so unkindly knock'd or no. — Shakspeare, 

His wrath, which one day w r ill destroy ye both. — Milioru 

I know thee not — nor ever saw, till now, 
Sight more detestable than him and thee. — Id. 

The season when to come, and when to go, 
To sing, or cease to sing, we never know. — Pope. 
19 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PART IV. 



PROSODY. 

Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures, arid 
versification. 

PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing composition, by points, 
or stops, for the purpose of showing more clearly the sense 
and relation of the words, and of noting the different 
pauses and inflections required in reading. 

The following are the principal points, or marks ; the 
Comma [,], the Semicolon [;], the Colon [:], the Period [.], 
the Dash [ — ], the Note of Interrogation [?], the Note of 
Exclamation [!], and the Parenthesis [()]. 

Obs. — The pauses that are made in the natural flow of speech, have, in 
reality, no definite and invariable proportions. Children are often told to 
pause at a comma while they might count one; at a semicolon, one, two; 
at a colon, one, two, three; at a period, one, two, three, four. This may be 
of some use, as teaching them to observe their stops that they may 
catch the sense ; but the standard itself is variable, and so are the times 
which good sense gives to the points. As a final stop, the period is im- 
measurable. The following general direction is as good as any that can 
be given. 

The Comma denotes the shortest pause ; the Semicolon, 
a pause double that of the comma ; the Colon, a pause 
double that of the semicolon ; and the Period, or Full Stop, 
a pause double that of the colon. — The pauses required by 
the other marks, vary according to the structure of the 
sentence, and their place in it. They may be equal to any 
of the foregoing. 

OF THE COMMA. 

The Comma is used to separate those parts of a sentence, 
which are so nearly connected in sense, as to be only one 
degree removed from that close connexion which admits 
no point. 

RULE I. SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

A simple sentence does not, in general, admit the comma j 
as, « The weakest reasoryers are the most positive." 



3^ 
PROSODY. PUNCTUATION. 249 

Exception. When the nominative ill a Jong simple sentence 
is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts, a comma should be 
placed before the verb ; as, " The assemblage of these vast 
bodies, is divided into different systems." 

RULE II. SIMPLE MEMBERS. 

The simple members of a compound sentence, whether suc- 
cessive or involved, elliptical or complete, are generally divided 
by the comma ; as, 

1. " He speaks eloquently, and he acts wisely." 

2. " The man, when he saw this, departed." 

3. " It may, and it often does happen." 

4. " That life is long, which answers life's great end." 

5. " As thy days, so shall thy strength be." 

Exception 1. When a relative immediately follows its an- 
tecedent, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should 
not be introduced before it ; as, " The things which are seen, 
are temporal ; but the things which are not seen, are eternal." — 
2 Cor. iv. 18. 

Exception 2. When the simple members are short, and 
closely connected by a conjunction or a conjunctive adverb, the 
comma is generally omitted ; as, " Infamy is worse than death." 
— " Let him tell me whether the number of the stars be even 
or odd." 

RULE III. MORE THAN TWO WORDS. 

When more than two words or terms are connected in the 
same construction, by conjunctions expressed or understood, 
the comma should be inserted after every one of them but the 
last ; and if they are nominatives before a verb, the comma 
should follow the last also : as, 

1 . " Who, to the enraptur'd heart, and ear, and eye, 

Teach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody." 

2. "Ah! what avails * * * * * * 

All that art, fortune, enterprise, can bring, 

If envy, scorn, remorse, or pride, the bosom wring ?" 

3. " Women are soft, mild, pitiful, and flexible ; 

Thou, stern, obdurate, flinty, rough, remorseless." 

4. " She plans, provides, expatiates, triumphs there." 

Obs. — Two or more words are in the same construction, when they have 
a common dependence on some other term, and are parsed alike. 

RULE IV. ONLY TWO WORDS. 

When only two words or terms are connected by a conjunc- 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tion, they should not he separated by the comma ; as, " De- 
spair and anguish fled the struggling soul." — Goldsmith. 

Exception 1. When the two words connected have several 
adjuncts, the comma is inserted ; as, u Honesty in his dealings, 
and attention to his business, procured him both esteem and 
wealth." 

Exception 2. When the two words connected are emphati- 
cally distinguished, the comma is inserted j as, 

" Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature r s hand." — Beattie. 
" 'Tis certain he could write, and cipher too." — Golds. 

Exception 3. When there is merely an alternative of words, 
the comma is inserted ; as, " We saw a large opening, or inlet.'* 

Exception 4. When the conjunction is understood, the 
comma is inserted ; as, 

" She thought the isle that gave her birth, 
The sweetest, wildest land on earth." — Hogg. 

RULE V. WORDS IN PAIRS. 

When successive words are joined in pairs by conjunction^ 
they should be separated in pairs by the comma ; as, " Interest 
and ambition, honour and shame, friendship and enmity, grati- 
tude and revenge, are the. prime movers in public transac- 
tions." 

RULE VI. WORDS ABSOLUTE. 

Words put absolute, should, with their adjuncts, be set off 
by the comma ; as, u The prince, his father being dead, suc- 
ceeded." — " This done, we parted." — u Zaccheus, make haste 
and come down." — " His prceiorship in Sicily, what did it pro- 
duce?" 

RULE VII. WORDS IN APPOSITION. 

Words put in apposition, (especially if they have adjuncts,} 
are generally set off by the comma ; as, " He that now calls 
upon thee, is Theodore, the hermit of Teneriffe." 

Exception 1. When several words are used as one compound 
name, the comma is not inserted ; as, " Samuel Johnson" — 
u Publius Gavius Cosanus." 

Exception 2. When a common and a proper name are closely 
united, the comma is not inserted ; as, u The brook Kidron" — 
" The river Don" — " The empress Catharine" — " Paul the 
apostle." 

Exception 3. When a pronoun is added to another word 
merely for emphasis and distinction, the comma is not inserted ; 



PROSODY. PUNCTUATION. 221 

l^as, u Ye men of Athens" — " I myself" — " Thou flaming min- 
ister" — " You princes." 

Exception 4. When a name acquired by some action or re- 
lation, is put in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun, 
the comma is not inserted ; as, " I made the ground my bed" — 
"To make him king" — " Whom they revered as God" — 
u With modest?/ thy guide." 

RULE VIII. ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives, when something depends on them, or when they 
have the import of a dependent clause, should, with their ad- 
juncts, be set off by the comma ; as, 

1. " Among the roots 

Of hazel, pendent o'er the plaintive stream. 

They frame the first foundation of their domes." — Thorn. 

2. , « Up springs the lark, 

" Shrill-voiced and loud, the messenger of morn." — Id. 
Exception. When an adjective immediately follows its noun, 

and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be 

used before it ; as, 

" On the coast averse from entrance." — Milton. 

RULE IX. FINITE VERBS. 

Where a finite verb is understood, a comma is generally re- 
quired : as, " From law arises security ; from security, curios- 
ity ; from curiosity, knowledge. 

RULE X. INFINITIVES. 

The infinitive mood, when it follows a verb from which it 
must be separated, or when it depends on something remote or 
understood, is generally set off by the comma ; as, " His de- 
light was, to assist the distressed" — " To conclude, I was reduced 
to beggary." 

" The Governor of all — has interposed, 
Not seldom, his avenging arm, to smite 
The injurious trampler upon nature's law."— Cowper. 

RULE XI. — PARTICIPLES. 

Participles, when something depends on them, when they 
have the import of a dependent clause, or when they relate to 
something understood, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by 
the comma ; as, 
1. u Young Edwin, lighted by the evening star, 

Lingering and listening, wander'd down the vala." 
19 



222 ENGLISH fiRAMMAJt. 

2. u United, we stand ; divided, we fall." 

3. " Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance." 

Exception. — When a participle immediately follows its noun 
and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be 
used before it ; as, 

"A man renowned for repartee, 
Will seldom scruple to make free 
With friendship's finest feeling." — Cowper. 

RULE XII. ADVERBS. 

Adverbs, when they break the connexion of a simple sen- 
tence, or when they have not a close dependence on some par- 
ticular word in the context, should be set off by the comma ; 
as, " We must not, however, confound this gentleness with the 
artificial courtesy of the world." — u Besides, the mind must be 
employed." — " Most unquestionably, no fraud was equal to all 
this." 

RULE XIII. — CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions, when they are separated from the principal 
clause that depends on them, or when they introduce an exam- 
ple, are generally set off by the comma ; as, " But, by a timely 
call upon Religion, the force of Habit was eluded." — Johnson. 

RULE XIV. PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions and their objects, when they break the connex- 
ion of a simple sentence, or when they do not closely follow 
the words on which they depend, are generally set off by the 
comma ; as, u Fashion is, for the most part, nothing but the 
ostentation of riches." — " By reading, we add the experience of 
others to our own." 

RULE XV. INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections are sometimes set off by the comma; as, " For, 
lo, I will call all the families of the kingdoms of the north." — 
Jeremiah, i. 15. 

RULE XVI. WORDS REPEATED. 

A word emphatically repeated, should be set off by the 
comma ; as, " Happy, happy, happy pair !" — " Ah ! no, no, 
no." 

RULE XVII. DEPENDENT QUOTATIONS. 

A quotation or observation, when it is introduced by a verb, 



r 

r 



PROSODY. PUNCTUATION. 223 



(as, say, reply, and the like.) is generally separated from the 
rest of the sentence by the comma ; as, " i The book of nature/ 
said he, > is open before thee.' " — " I say unto all, Watch." 

OF THE SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon is used to separate those parts of a 
compound sentence, which are neither so closely connect- 
ed as those which are distinguished by the comma, nor so 
little dependent as those which require the colon. 

RULE I. COMPOUND MEMBERS. 

When several compound members, some or all of which 
require the comma, are constructed into a period, they are gen- 
erally separated by the semicolon : as, " In the regions inhabit- 
ed by angelic natures, unmingled felicity forever blooms ; joy 
flows there with a perpetual and abundant stream, nor needs 
any mound to check its course." — Carter. 

RULE II. SIMPLE MEMBERS. 

When several simple members, each of which is complete 
in sense, are constructed into a period ; if they require a pause 
greater than that of the comma, they are usually separated by 
the semicolon : as, " Straws swim upon the surface ; but pearls 
lie at the bottom." 

" A longer care man's helpless land demands ; 
That longer care contracts more lasting bands." — Pope. 

RULE III. APPOSITION, &C. 

Words in apposition, or in any other construction, if they 
require a pause greater than that of the comma, and less than 
that of the colon, may be separated by the semicolon: as, 
" There are five moods ; the infinitive, the indicative, the po- 
tential, the subjunctive, and the imperative." 

OF THE COLON. 

The Colon is used to separate those parts of a compound 
sentence, which are neither so closely connected as those 
which are distinguished by the semicolon, nor so little de- 
pendent as those which require the period. 

RULE I. ADDITIONAL REMARKS. 

When the preceding clause is complete in itself, but is fol- 
lowed by some additional remark or illustration, the colon is 
generally used : as, " Avoid evil doers : in such society an 
honest man may become ashamed of himself." — "See that 




224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

moth fluttering- incessantly round the candle : man of p] 
behold thy image." 

RULE II. — GREATER PAUSES. 

When the semicolon has been introduced, and a still greater 
pause is required within the period, the colon should be em- 
ployed : as, " Princes have courtiers, and merchants have part-, - 
ners ; the voluptuous have companions, and the wicked have 
accomplices : none but the virtuous can have friends." 

RULE III. INDEPENDENT QUOTATIONS. 

A quotation introduced without dependence on a verb or a 
conjunction, is generally preceded by the colon ; as, " In his 
jast moments he uttered these words : " I fall a sacrifice to sloth 
arid luxury" 

OF THE PERIOD. 

The Period, or Full Stop, is used to mark an entire and 
independent sentence, whether simple or compound. 

RULE I. DISTINCT SENTENCES. 

When a sentence is complete in respect to sense, and in- 
dependent in respect to construction, it should be marked with 
the period : as, " Every deviation from truth is criminal. Ab- 
hor a falsehood. Let your words be ingenuous. Sincerity pos- 
sesses the most powerful charm." 

RULE II. ALLIED SENTENCES. 

The period is often employed between two sentences which 
have a general connexion, expressed by a personal pronoun, a 
conjunction, or a conjunctive adverb ; as, " The selfish man 
languishes in his narrow circle of pleasures. They are con- 
fined to what affects his own interests. He is obliged to repeat 
the same gratifications, till they become insipid. But the man 
of virtuous sensibility moves in a wider sphere of felicity."- — 
Blair. 

RULE III. ABBREVIATIONS. 

The period is generally used after abbreviations ; as, A. D. 
for Anno Domini — Pro tern, for fro tempore — Ult. for ultimo — ■ 
i. e. for id est, that is. 

OF THE DASH. 

The Dash is used to denote an unexpected or emphatic 
pause of variable length. 






PROSODY. PUNCTUATION. 225 

RULE I. ABRUPT PAUSES. 

A sudden interruption or transition should be marked with 
■h; as, "I must inquire into the affair, and if' — 'And 
if! 1 interrupted the farmer." 

^" Here lies the great — false marble, where ? 
Nothing but sordid dust lies here." — Young. 

RULE II. EMPHATIC PAUSES. 

To mark a considerable pause, greater than the structure of 
the sentence or the points inserted, would seem to require, the 
dash may be employed ; as, 

1. -And now they part — to meet no more." 

2. " Revere thyself ;— and yet thyself despise." 

3. " Behold the picture ! — Is it like ? — Like whom 2" 

OF THE NOTE OF INTERROGATION. 

The note of Interrogation is used to designate a question. 

RULE I. QUESTIONS DIRECT. 

Questions expressed directly as such, should always be fol- 
lowed by the note of interrogation ; as, 

" In life, can love be bought with gold ? 
Are friendship's pleasures to be sold?" — Johnson. 

RULE II. QUESTIONS UNITED. 

When two or more questions are united in one compound 
sentence, the comma or semicolon is sometimes placed between 
them, and the note of interrogation, after the last only ; as, 

u Truths would you teach, or save a sinking land ? 
All fear, none aid you, and few understand." — Pope. 

RULE III. QUESTIONS INDIRECT. 

When a question is mentioned, but not put directly as a 
question, it loses both the quality and the sign of interrogation ; 
as, u The Cyprians asked me why I wept. 11 

OF THE NOTE OF EXCLAMATION. 

The Note of Exclamation is used to denote some strong 
or sudden emotion of the mind , and, as a sign of great 
wonder, it may be repeated ! ! ! 




226 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE I. INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections and other expressions of great emotion 
erally followed by the note of exclamation ; as, 

" O ! let me listen to the words of life !" — Thoms< 

RULE II. INVOCATIONS. 

After an earnest address or invocation, the note of exclamj^ 
tion is usually preferred to the comma: as, "Whereupon, 
king Agrippa ! . I was not disobedient unto the heavenly 
vision." — Acts, xxvi. 19. 

RULE III. EXCLAMATORY QUESTIONS. I 

A question uttered with vehemence, and without reference 
to an answer, should be followed by the note of exclamation ; 
as, " How madly have I talked !" — Young. 

OF THE PARENTHESIS. 

The Parenthesis is used to distinguish a clause that is 
hastily thrown in between the parts of a sentence to which 
it does not properly belong ; as, 

" To others do (the law is not severe) 
What to thyself thou wishest to be done." — Beattie. 

Obs. — The incidental clause should be uttered in a lower tone, and faster, 
than the principal sentence. It always requires a pause as great as that of 
a comma, or greater. 

RULE I. INCIDENTAL CLAUSES. 

A clause that breaks the unity of a sentence too much to be 
incorporated with it, and only such, should be enclosed in a 
parenthesis ; as, 

u Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
Virtue alone is happiness below." — Pope. 

RULE II.— INCLUDED POINTS 

The parenthesis does not supersede the other stops ; it termi- 
nates with a pause equal to that which precedes it ; and it 
should include the same point, except when the sentences differ 
in form : as, 

1. " Man's thirst of happiness declares it is : 

(For nature never gravitates to nought :) 

That thirst unquench'd, declares it is not here." — Young. 

2. K Night visions may befriend : (as sung above:) 

Our waking dreams are fatal. How I dreamt 
Of things impossible ! (could sleep do more ?) 
Of joys perpetual in perpetual change." — Young. 




PROSODY. PUNCTUATION. 22? 

OF THE OTHER MARKS. 

There are also several other marks, which are occasion- 
Bed for various purposes, as follow : 

I B The Apostrophe denotes either the possessive case, or the 
elision of one or more letters of a word : as, The girVs regard 
to her parents' advice ; — ''gan, lov'd, e'en, thro 1 ; for began, loved, 
Jfep, through. 

2. [-] The Hyphen connects the parts of compound words ; 

as, ever-living. Placed at the end of a line, it shows that one 

or more syllables of a word are carried forward to the next line. 

$] The Diaeresis, placed over the latter of two vowels, 

shows that they are not a diphthong : as, aerial 

4. rn The Acute Accent marks the syllable which requires 
^the principal stress in pronunciation ; as, equal, equal'ity. It 

is sometimes used in opposition to the grave accent, to dis- 
tinguish a close vowel, or to denote the rising inflection of the 
voice. 

5. [ s ] The Grave Accent is used in opposition to the acute, 
to distinguish an open vowel or to denote the falling inflection 
of the voice. 

6. [ ] The Circumflex generally denotes the broad sound of 
a vowel ; as, eclat. 

7. ["] The Breve is used to denote either a close vowel or a 
syllable of short quantity ; as raven, to devour. 

8. ["] The Macron is used to denote either an open vowel 
or a syllable of long quantity ; as, raven, a bird. 

9. [ ] or [****] The Ellipsis denotes the omission of 

some letters or words ; as, K — g, for king. 

10. [a] The Caret shows where to insert words or letters 
that have been accidentally omitted. 

1 1. [-^-^] The Brace serves to unite a triplet ; or to connect 
several terms with something to which they are all related. 

12. [§] The Section marks the smaller divisions of a book 
or chapter. 

13. [Y] The Paragraph (chiefly used in the Bible) denotes 
the commencement of a new subject. The parts of discourse 
which are called paragraphs, are, in general, sufficiently dis- 
tinguished, by beginning a new line, and carrying the first 
word a little forwards or backwards. 

14. [" "] The Quotation Points distinguish words that are 
taken from an other author or speaker. A quotation within a 
quotation is marked with single points ; which, when both are 
employed, are placed within the others. 







228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

15. [[]] The Crotchets generally enclose some corra 
explanation, or the subject to be explained ; as, 
speaker] was of a different opinion." 

16. [Jd 3 ] The Index points out something remarka 

17. [*] The Asterisk, [f] the Obelisk, [J] the Double. 
and [||] the Parallel, refer to marginal notes. The fettei 
alphabet, or the numerical figures, may be used for tfc 
purpose. 

IpT [For oral exercises in punctuation, the teacher may select any welP 
pointed book, to which the foregoing rules and explanations may be applied 
by the pupil.] 

_ fit 

UTTERANCE. 

Utterance is the art of vocal expression. It includes 
the principles of pronunciation and elocution. 

OF PRONUNCIATION. 

Pronunciation, as distinguished from elocution, is the ut- 
terance of words taken separately. 

Pronunciation requires a knowledge of the just powers 
of the letters in all their combinations, and of the force 
and seat of the accent. 

I. The Just Powers of the letters, are those sounds which are 
given to them by the best readers. 

II. Accent is the peculiar stress which we lay upon some par- 
ticular syllable of a word, whereby that syllable is distinguish- 
ed from the rest ; as, gram-mar, gram-md-ri-an. 

Every word of more than one syllable, has one of its sylla- 
bles accented. 

When the word is long, for the sake of harmony or distinct- 
ness, we often give a secondary or less forcible accent to an 
other syllable ; as, to the last of tem-per-a-ture, and to the second 
of in-dem-nifi-cd-tion. 

A full and open pronunciation of the long vowel sounds, a 
clear articulation of the consonants, a forcible and well-placed 
accent, and a distinct utterance of the unaccented syllables, dis- 
tinguish the elegant speaker. 

[fjT For a full explanation of the principles of pronunciation, the learner 
is referred to Walker's Critical Pronouncing Dictionary.] 

OP ELOCUTION. 

Elocution is the utterance of words that are arranged 
into sentences, and form discourse. 

Elocution requires a knowledge, and right application, 
of emphasis, pauses, inflections, and tones. 



PROSODY.-- FIGURES. 229 

I. Emphasis is the peculiar . stress of voice which we lay 
upon some particular word or words in a sentence, which are 
thereby distinguished from the rest. 

II. Pauses are cessations in utterance, which serve equally to 
* relieve the speaker, and to render language intelligible and 

pleasing. The duration of the pauses should be proportionate 
to the degree of connexion between the parts of the discourse. 

III. Inflections are those peculiar variations of the human 
voice, by which a continuous sound is made to pass from one 
note into an other. The passage of the voice from a lower to 
a higher or shriller note, is called the rising inflection. The 
passage of the voice from a higher to a lower or graver note, 
is called the falling inflection. These two opposite inflections 
may be heard in the following examples : 1. The rising, " Do 
you mean to go . ? " 2. Tim falling, " When will you go . ? " 

Obs. — Questions that may be answered by yes or no, require the rising 
inflection ; those that demand any other answer, must be uttered with the 
falling inflection. 

IV. Toms are those modulations of the voice, which depend 
upon the feelings of the speaker. And it is of the utmost im- 
portance, that they be natural, and adapted to the subject and to 
the occasion : for upon them, in a great measure, depends all 
that is pleasing or interesting in elocution. 



FIGURES. 

A Figure, in grammar, is an intentional deviation from 
the ordinary form, construction, or application, of words. 
There are, accordingly, figures of Etymology, figures of 
Syntax, and figures of Rhetoric. When figures are judi- 
ciously employed, they both strengthen and adorn expres- 
sion. They occur more frequently in poetry than in 
prose ; and several of them are merely poetic licenses. 

FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 

A Figure of Etymology is an intentional deviation 
from the ordinary form of a word. 

The principal figures of Etymology are eight; namely, 
A-phar-esis, Pros-thesis, Syn-co-pe, A-poc-o-pe, Par-a-go-ge, Di- 
(Br-esis, Syn~&r-esis, and Tmesis. 

1. Aphceresis is the elision of some of the initial letters of a 
word j as, 'gainst, 'gan, 'neath, — for against, began, beneath, 

20 







230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

II. Prosthesis is the prefixing of an expletive syllable to a 
word ; as, ad own, appaid, tetrown, evanished, V^^j^T 
down, paid, strown, vanished, clad. 

III. Syncope is the elision of some of the middle letters 
of a word ; as, medicine, for medicine ; sennight, for seven- 
night. 

IV. Apocope is the elision of some of the final letters of a 
word ; as, tho\ for though — th\ for the. 

V. Paragoge. is the annexing of an expletive syllable to a 
word ; as, withouten, for without — deary, for dear. 

VI. Diuresis is the separating of two vowels that might 
form a diphthong; as, cooperate, not cooperate — aeronaut, not 
xronaut. 

VII. Synceresis is the sinking of two syllables into one ; as, 
seest, for seest — tacked, for tack-ed — drowned, for drown-ed. 

Obs. — When a vowel is entirely suppressed in pronunciation, (whether 
retained in writing or not,) the consonants connected with it, fall into an 
other syllable : thus, tried, trust, loved or lov'd, lovest or lov'st, are monosyl- 
lables ; except in solemn discourse, in which the e is generally retained and 
made vocal. 

VIII. Tmesis is the inserting of a word between the parts of 
a compound ; as, " On which side soever." — " To us ward." — 
" To God ward." 

FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

A Figure of Syntax is an intentional deviation from 
the ordinary construction of words. 

The principal figures of Syntax are five ; namely, El-lip-sis, 
Ple-o-nasm, Syl-lep-sis, En-al-la-ge, and Hy-per-ba-ton. 

I. Ellipsis* is the omission of some word or words which are 

* There never can be an ellipsis of any thing which is either unnecessary 
to the construction or necessary to the sense ; for to say what we mean and 
nothing more, never can constitute a deviation from the ordinary grammati- 
cal construction of words. As a figure of Syntax, therefore, the ellipsis can 
be only of such words as are so evidently suggested to the reader, that the 
writer is as fully answerable for them as if he had written them. To sup- 
pose an ellipsis where there is none, or to overlook one where it really occurs, 
is to pervert or mutilate the text, in order to accommodate it to the parser's 
ignorance of the principles of syntax. There never can be either a general 
uniformity or a self- consistency in our methods of parsing, or in our notions 
of grammar, till the true nature of an ellipsis is clearly ascertained ; so that 
the writer shall distinguish it from a blundering omission that impairs the 
sense, and the reader be barred from an arbitrary insertion of what would be 
cumbrous and useless. By adopting loose and extravagant ideas of the na- 
ture of this figure, some pretenders to learning and philosophy have been led 
into the most whimsical and opposite notions concerning the grammatical 
construction of language Thus, with equal absurdity, Cardell and Sher- 
man, in their Philosophic Grammars, attempt to confute the doctrines 
of their predecessors, by supposing ellipsis at pleasure. And while the 
former teaches, that prepositions do not govern the objective case, but that 



PROSODY. FIGURES. 23 1 

necessary to complete the construction, but not necessary to 
convey the meaning. Such words are said to be understood ; 
because they are received as belonging to the sentence, though 
they are not uttered. 

Almost all compound sentences are more or less elliptical. 
There may be an omission of any of the parts of speech, or 
even of a whole clause ; but the omission of articles or interjec- 
tions can scarcely constitute a proper ellipsis. Examples : 

1. Of the Article ; as, " A man and [a] woman" — " The day, 
[the] month, and [the] year." 

2. Of the Noun ; as, " The common [law] and the statute 
law" — " The twelve [apostles]" — " One [book] of my books" — 
" A dozen [bottles] of wine." 

3. Of the Adjective; as, " There are subjects proper for the 
one, and not [proper] for the other." — Karnes. 

4. Of the Pronoun ; as, " I love [him] and [/] fear him." — 
" The estates [which] we own." 

5. Of the Verb; as, "Who did this? I" [did it].— "To 
whom thus Eve, yet sinless" [spoke]. 

6. Of the Participle ; as, " That [being] o'er, they part." 

7. Of the Adverb ; as, " He spoke [wisely] and acted wisely." 
— " Exceedingly great and [exceedingly] powerful." 

8. Of the Conjunction ; as, "The fruit of the Spirit is love, 
[and] joy, [and] peace, [and] long-suffering, [and] gentleness, 
[and] goodness, [and] faith, [and] meekness, [and] temper- 
ance." — Gal. v. 22. The repetition of the conjunction is called 
Polysyndeton ; and the omission of it, Asyndeton. 

9. Of the Preposition; as, " [On] this day" — "[hi] next 
month" — " He departed [from] this life" — " He gave [to] me a 
book" — " To walk [through] a mile." 

10. Of the Interjection; as, "Oh! the frailty, [Oh!] the 
wickedness of men !" 

11. Of a Clause; as, "The active commonly do more than 
they are bound to do; the indolent [commonly do] less" [than 
they are bound to do]. 

II. Pleonasm is the introduction of superfluous words. 
This figure is allowable only, when, in animated discourse, it 
abruptly introduces an emphatic word, or repeats an idea to 
impress it more strongly ; as, " He that hath ears to hear, let him 
hear !" — " All ye inhabitants of the world, and dwellers on the 



every verb -is transitive, and governs at least two objects, expressed or under- 
stood, its own and that of a preposition ; the latter, with just as good anargu 
ment, contends, that no verb is transitive, but that every objective case is 
governed by a preposition expressed or understood. A world of nonsense for 
lack of a definition ! 



232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

earth /" — " There shall not be left one stone upon an other thai 
shall not be thrown down. )) — " I know thee who thou art." — Bi- 
ble. A Pleonasm is sometimes impressive and elegant ; but an 
unemphatic repetition of the same idea, is one of the worst faults 
of bad writing. 

III. Syllepsis is agreement formed according to the figurative 
sense of a word, or the mental conception of the thing spoken 
of, and not according to the literal or common use of the term j 
it is therefore, in general, connected with some figure of rhet- 
oric : as, u The Word was made flesh and dwelt among us, and 
we beheld his glory." — John, i. 14. " Then Philip went down 
to the city of Samaria, and preached Christ unto them." — Acts, 
viii. 5. " While Evening draws her crimson curtain round." — 
Thomson. 

IV. Enallage is the use of one part of speech, or of one 
modification for an other. This figure borders closely upon 
solecism ; # and, for the stability of the language, it should be 
sparingly indulged. There are, however, several forms of it 
which can appeal to good authority : as, 

1. " You know that you are Brutus, that say this." — Shah. 

2. a They fall successive [ly,] and successive [ly] rise.". — Pope. 

3. " Than whom [who] none higher sat." — Milton. 

4. " Sure some disaster has befell" [befallen.] — Gay. 

5. " So furious was that onset's shock, 

Destruction's gates at once unlock." — Hogg. 

V. Hyperbaton is the transposition of words ; as, "He wan- 
ders earth around" — Cowper. " Rings the world with the vain 
stir." — Id. " Whom therefore ye ignorantly worship, him de- 
clare I unto you." — Acts. This figure is much employed in 
poetry. A judicious use of it confers harmony, variety, strength, 
and vivacity upon composition. But care should be taken lest 
it produce ambiguity or obscurity. 

FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

A Figure of Rhetoric is an intentional deviation from 
the ordinary application of words. Figures of this kind 
are commonly called Tropes. 

* Deviations of this kind are, in general, to be considered solecisms ; other- 
wise, the rules of grammar would be of no use or authority. Despauter, an 
ancient Latin grammarian, gave an improper latitude to this figure, under the 
name of Antiptosis ; and Behourt and others extended it still further. But 
Sanctius says, Antiptosi grammaticoTum nihil imperitius, quod Jigmentum si 
essel verum., frustra qucereretur, quern casum verba regerent. And the Mes- 
sieurs De Port Royal reject the figure altogether. There are, however, some 
changes of this kind, which the grammarian is not competent to condemn, 
though they do not accord with the ordinary principles of construction. 



PROSODY. FIGURES. 233 

Numerous departures from perfect simplicity of diction, 
occur in almost every kind of composition. They are mostly 
founded on some similitude or relation of things, which, by 
the power of imagination, is rendered conducive to ornament 
or illustration. 

The principal figures of Rhetoric are fourteen ; namely, 
Sim-i-le, Met-a-phor, Al-le-gor-y, Me-ton-y-my, Sy-nec-do-che, Hy* 
per-bo-le, Vis-ion, A-pos-lro-phe, Per-son-i-fi-ca-tion, Er-o-tesis, Ec- 
<pho-ne-sis, An-tith-e-sis, Cli-max, and I-ro-ny. 

I. A Simile is a simple and express comparison ; and is gen- 
erally introduced by like, as, or so : as, 

" At first, like thunder's distant tone, 
The rattling din came rolling on." — Hogg. 

" Man, like the generous vine, supported lives ; 
The strength he gains, is from th' embrace he gives." — Pope. 

II. A Metaphor is a figure that expresses the resemblance 
of two objects by applying either the name, or some attribute, 
adjunct, or action, of the one, directly to the other ; as, 

1. " His eye was morning's brightest ray" — Hogg. 

2. " An angler in the tides of fame." — Id. 

3. " Beside him sleeps the warrior's bow." — Langhorne. 

4. " Wild fancies in his moody brain, 

Gambol' d unbridled and unbound" — Hogg. 

5. u Speechless, and fix'd in all the death of wo." — Thorn. 

III. An Allegory is a continued narration of fictitious events, 
designed to represent and illustrate important realities. Thus 
the Psalmist represents the Jewish nation under the symbol of 
a vine : " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt : thou hast 
cast out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room 
before it, and didst cause it to take deep root ; and it filled the 
land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and the 
boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars." — Ps. lxxx. 8. 

Obs. — The Allegory, agreeably to the foregoing definition of it, includes 
most of those similitudes which in the Scriptures are called parables; it 
includes also the better sort of fables. The term allegory is sometimes 
applied to a true history in which something else is intended, than is con- 
tained in the words literally taken. [See Gal. iv. 24.] In the Scriptures, 
the term fable denotes an idle and groundless story. [See 1 Tim. iv. 1, 
and 2 Pet. i. 16.] 

IV. A Metonymy is a change of names. It is founded on 
some such relation as that of cause and effect, of subject and 
adjunct, of place and inhabitant, of container, and thing con- 
tained, or of sign and thing signified : as, " God is our salva- 
tion /" i. e. Saviour. — " He was the sigh of her secret soul ;* 

20* 



234 ENGLISH GRAMxMAR. 

i. e. the youth she loved. — " They smote the city ;" i. e. citi- 
zens. — " My son, give me thy heaii ;" i. e. affection. — " The 
sceptre shall not depart from Judah ;" i. e. kingly power. 

V. Synecdoche is the naming of the whole for a part, or of a 
part for the whole ; as, " This roof [i. e. house] protects you." 
— " Now the year [i. e. summer] is beautiful." 

VI. Hyperbole is extravagant exaggeration, in which the 
imagination is indulged beyond the sobriety of truth ; as, 

" The sky .shrunk upward tvith unusual dread. 
And trembling Tiber dvtfd beneath his bedP — Dryden. 

VII. Vision, or Imagery, is a figure by which the speaker 
represents the objects of his imagination, as actually before his 
eyes and present to his senses ] as, 

u I see the dagger-crest of Mar ! 
I see the Moray's silver star 
Wave o'er the cloud of Saxon war, 
That up the lake comes winding far I" — Scott 

VIII. Apostrophe is a turning from the regular course of the 
subject, into an animated address; as, " Death is swallowed up 
in victory. O Death ! where is thy sting ? O Grave ! where 
is thy victory?"—! Cor. xv. 54, 55. 

IX. Personification is a figure by which, in imagination, we 
ascribe .intelligence and personality to unintelligent beings or 
abstract qualities ; as, 

1. " The Worm, aware of his intent, 

Harangued him thus, right eloquent." — Cowper. 

2. " Lo, steel-clad War his gorgeous standard rears !" — Rog 

3. " Hark ! Truth proclaims, thy triumph cease." — Id. 

X. Erotesis is a figure in which the speaker adopts the form 
of interrogation, not to express a doubt, but, in general, confi- 
dently to assert the reverse of wnat is asked ; as, " Hast thou 
an arm like God? or canst thou thunder with a voice like 
him ?" — Job, xl. 9. " He that planted the ear, shall he not 
hear % he tnat formed the eye, shall he not see ?" — Ps. xciv. 9. 

XL Ecphonesis is a pathetic exclamation, denoting some 
violent emotion of the mind ; as, " O liberty ! — O sound once 
delightful to every Roman ear !— O sacred privilege of Roman 
citizenship ! — once sacred — now trampled upon !" — Cicero. " O 
that I had wings like a dove ! for then would I fly away and 
be at rest !" — Ps. lv. 6. 

XII. Antithesis is a placing of things in opposition, to 
heighten their effect by contrast ; as, 

" Contrasted faults through all his manners reign ; 
Though poor, luxurious ; though submissive, vain 



PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. 235 

Though grave, yet trifling ; zealous, yet untrue ; 
And e'en in penance, planning sins anew." — Goldsmith. 

XIII. Climax is a figure in which the sense is made to ad- 
vance by successive steps, to rise gradually to what is more and 
more important and interesting, or to descend to what is more 
and more minute and particular : as, u And besides this, giving 
all diligence, add to your faith, virtue ; and to virtue, knowl- 
edge ; and to knowledge, temperance ; and to temperance, pa- 
tience ; and to patience, godliness ; and to godliness, brotherly 
kindness ; and to brotherly kindness, charity." — 2 Pet. i. 5. 

XIV. Irony is a figure in which the speaker sneeringly ut- 
ters the direct reverse of what he intends shall be understood ; 
as, " We have, to be sure, great reason to believe the modest 
man would not ask him for a debt, when he pursues his life." 
— Cicero. 



VERSIFICATION. 

Versification is the art of arranging words into lines of 
correspondent length, so as to produce harmony by the 
regular alternation of syllables differing in quantity. 

The Quantity of a syllable, is the relative portion of time oc- 
cupied in uttering it. In poetry, every syllable is considered 
to be either long or short. A long syllable is reckoned to be 
equal to two short ones. 

Obs. 1. — The quantity of a syllable does not depend on the sound of 
the vowel or diphthong, but principally on the degree of accentual force 
with which the syllable is uttered, whereby a greater or less portion of time 
is employed. The open vowel sounds are those which are the most easily 
protracted, yet they often occur in the shortest and feeblest syllables. 

Obs. 2. — Most monosyllables are variable, and may be made either long 
or short, as suits the rhythm. In words of greater length, the accented syl- 
lable is always long ; and a syllable immediately before or after that which is 
accented, is always short. 

Rhyme is a similarity of sound, between the last syllables of 
different lines. Blank verse is verse without rhyme. 

Obs. — The principal rhyming syllables are almost always long. Double 
rhyme adds one short syllable ; triple rhyme, two. Such syllables are re- 
dundant in iambic and anapasstic verses. 

POETIC FEET. 

A line of poetry consists of successive combinations of sylla- 
bles, called /e^. A poetic/^ consists either of two or of three 
syllables. 



236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The principal English feet are the Iambus, the Trochee, the 
Anapcest, and the Dactyl 

1. The Iambus is a poetic foot consisting of a short syllable 
and a long one ; as betray, confess. 

2. The Trochee is a poetic foot consisting of a long syllable 
and a short one ; as, hateful, pettish. 

3. The Anapaest is a poetic foot consisting of two short syl- 
lables and one long one ; as, contravene, acquiesce. 

4. The Dactyl is a poetic foot consisting of one long syllable 
and two short ones ; as, labourer, possible. 

We have, accordingly, four kinds of verse, or poetic mea- 
sure ; Iambic, Trochaic, Anapcestic, and Dactylic. 

Obs. — The more pure these several kinds are preserved, the more com- 
plete is the chime of the verse. But poets generally indulge some va- 
riety; not so much, however, as to confound the drift of the rhythmical pul- 
sations. 

SCANNING. 

Scanning is the dividing of verses into the feet which com- 
pose them. 

Obs. — When a syllable is wanting, the verse is said to be caiahctic ; when 
the measure is exact, the line is acatalectic; when there is a redundant syl- 
lable, it forms hypermeter. 

I. OF IAMBIC VERSE. 

In Iambic verse, the stress is laid on the even syllables. It 
consists of the following measures : 

1. Iambic of Seven feet, or Heptameter. 

The Lord | descended from | above, | and bOw'd | the 
heav|ens nigh. 

Modern poets have divided this kind of verse, into alternate 
lines of four and of three feet : thus, 

O blind j to each | indul|gent aim 

Of pow'r | supreme | ly wise, 
Who fan|cy hap | pin ess | in aught 

The hand [ of heav'n j denies ! 

2. Iambic of Six feet, or Hexameter. 
Thy realm | forev|er lasts, | thy own | Mess! | ah reigns. 

This is the Alexandrine ; it is seldom used except to complete 
a stanza in an ode, or occasionally to close a period in heroic 
rhyme. French heroics are similar to this. 

3. Iambic of Five feet, or Pentameter. 

For praise | too dear|ly lov'd j or warm|]y sought, 
Enfee|bles all | inter|nal strength | of thought. 



PROSODY. VERSIFICATION, 237 

With sol|emn acl|6ra|ti6n down | they cast 
Their crowns | inwove | with am|arant | and gold. 

This is the regular English heroic. It is, perhaps, the onl* 
measure suitable for blank verse. 

The Elegiac Stanza consists of four heroics rhyming alter 
natoly ; as, 

Enough | has Heav'n | indulg'd | of joy | below, 
To tempt | our tar|riance in | this lov'd | retreat ; 

Enough I has Heav'n | ordain' d | of usejful wo, 
To make | us lang|uish for | a hap | pier seat. 

4. Iambic of Four feet, or Tetrameter. 

The joys | above | are understood 
And rel|ish'd on|ly by | the good. 

5. Iambic of Three feet. 
Blue light |nlngs tinge | the wave, 
And thun|der rends | the rock. 

6. Iambic of Two feet. 

Their love | and awe 
Supply | the law. 

7. Iambic of One foot. 

How bright, 
The light ! 

Lines of fewer than seven syllables are seldom found, except 
in connection with longer verses. 

In iambic verse, the first foot is often varied, by introducing 
a trochee ; as, 

Planets | and suns | run law|less through | the sky. 

By a synasresis of the two short syllables, an anapaest may 
sometimes be employed for an iambus ; or a dactyl, for a tro 
chee: as, 

Oir mk\ny d fro|zen, ma|^y a f Ij'ry alp. 
II. OF TROCHAIC VERSE. 

In Trochaic verse, the stress is laid on the odd syllables. 
Single-rhymed trochaic omits the final short syllable, that it 
may end with a long one. This kind of verse is the same as 
iambic without the initial short syllable. Iambics and trochaics 
often occur in the same poem. 

1. Trochaic of Six feet. 

On a | mountain I stretch'd be|neath a | hoary | willow, 
Lay a | shepherd j swain, and | view T d the | rolling | billow. 






238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Trochaic of Five feet. 

Virtue's | bright'ning | ray shall | beam for | evSr. 

Single Rhyme. 

Idle | after | dinner, | In his | chair, 
Sat a | farmer | ruddy | fat and | fair. 

3. Trochaic of Four feet. 

Round a | holy | calm dif | fusing, 
Love of | peace and | lonely | musing. 

Single Rhyme. 

Restless | mortals | toil for I naught ; 
Bliss in | vain from | earth is | sought 

4. Trochaic of Three feet 
When our | hearts are | mourning. 

Single Rhyme. 

In the | days of I old, 
Stories | plainly | told — 

5. Trochaic of Two feet. 

Fancy | viewing 
Joys en j suing. 

Single Rhyme. 



Tumult 
Sink to 

6. Trochaic o 


cease, 
peace. 

f One foot. 


Chang 
Rangii 

III. OF ANAP^E 


STIC VERSE. 






In Anapaestic verse the stress is laid on every third syllable. 
The first foot of an anapaestic line, may be an iambus. 

1 . Anapaestic of Four feet. 

At the close | of the day | when the ham|let is still, 
And mor\tah the sweets | of forget [fulness prove. 

2. Anapaestic of Three feet. 
I am mon|arch of all | I survey ; 
My right | there is none | to dispute. 

3. Anapaestic of Two feet. 

When I look | on my boys, 
They renew | all my joys. 



PROSODY. PARSING. 239 

4. Anapaestic of One foot. 
On the land 
Let me stand. 

IV.— OP DACTYLIC VERSE. 

In pure Dactylic verse, the stress is laid on the first, the 
fourth, the seventh, and the tenth syllable. Full dactylic gen- 
erally forms triple rhyme. When one of the final short sylla- 
bles is omitted, the rhyme is double ; when both, single. Dac- 
tylic with single rhyme, is the same as anapaestic without its 
initial short syllables. Dactylic measure is uncommon ; and, 
when employed, is seldom perfectly regular. 

1. Dactylic of Four feet. 

Boys will anticipate, | lavish, and | dissipate 
All that your | busy pate | hoarded with | care ; 

And, in their | foolishness, | passion, and j mulishness, 
Charge you with | churlishness, | spurning your | pray'r. 

2. Dactylic of Three feet. 

Ever sing [merrily, | merrily 

3. Dactylic of Two feet. 
Free from sa|tlety, 
Care, and anxjiety, 
Charms in va|riety, 
Fall to his I share. 

4. Dactylic of One foot. 

Fearfully, 
Tearfully. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

CHAPTER IX.— PROSODICAL. 

In the Ninth Chapter, are exemplified the several Fig- 
ures of Etymology, of Syntax, and of Rhetoric ; and 
by it the pupil may also be exercised in relation to 
the principles of Punctuation, Utterance, and Ver- 
sification. 

LESSON I.— FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 

APH.ERESIS, PROSTHESIS, SYNCOPE, APOCOPE, PARAGOGE, DIURESIS, 

SYNjERESIS, and tmesis. 

Bend 'gainst the steepy hill thy breast, 
Burst down like torrent from its crest — Scott. 

'Tis mine to teach th 1 inactive hand to reap 

Kind nature's bounties, o'er the globe diffused, — Dyer. 



, 



240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Alas ! alas ! how impotently true 

Th 1 aerial pencil forms the scene anew. — Cawthorne. 

Here a deformed monster jotfd to won, 
Which on fell rancour ever was ybent. — Lloyd. 

Withouten trump was proclamation made. — Thomson. 

The gentle knight, who saw their rueful case, 

Let fall adown his silver beard some tears. 

* Certes,' quoth he, l it is not e'en in grace, 

T' undo the past and eke your broken years.' — Id. 

Vain tamp' ring has but foster J d his disease ; 

'Tis desperate, and he sleeps the sleep of death. — Cowper. 

I have a pain upon my forehead here 

Why thatfs with watching ; Hwill away again. — Shakspeare. 

Til to the woods, among the happier brutes ; 

Come, leth away ; hark ! the shrill horn resounds. — Smith. 

What prayer and supplication soever be made. — Bible. 

By the grace of God we have had our conversation in the 
world, and more abundantly to you ward. — lb. 

LESSON II.— FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

FIGURE I. ELLIPSIS. 

• 

And now he faintly kens the bounding fawn, 

And [ — ] villager [ — ] abroad at early toil. — Beattie. 

The cottage curs at [ — ] early pilgrim bark. — Id. 

'Tis granted, and no plainer truth appears, 

Our most important [ — ] are our earliest years. — Cowper. 

To earn her aid, with fix'd and anxious eye, 

He looks on nature's [ — ] and on fortune's course ; 

Too much in vain. — Akenside. 

True dignity is his, whose tranquil mind 

Virtue has rais'd above the things [ — ] below ; 

Who, ev'ry hope and [ — ] fear to Heav'n resign'd, 

Shrinks not, though Fortune aim her deadliest blow. — Beattie. 

For longer in that paradise to dwell, 

The law [ — ] I gave to nature, him forbids. — Milton. 

So little mercy shows [ — ] who needs so much. — Cowper. 

Bliss is the same [ — ] in subject, as [ — ] in king ; 

In [ — ] who obtain defence, and [ — ] who defend. — Pope. 



PROSODY, PARSING. 241 

Man made for kings ! those optics are but dim 

That tell you so — say rather, they [ — -] for him. — Cowper. 

Man may dismiss compassion from his heart, 
But God will never [ ]. — Id. 

Mortals whose pleasures are their only care, 

First wish to be impos'd on, and then are [ — ]. — Id. 

Vigour [ — ] from toil, from trouble patience grows. — Beattie. 

Where now the rill melodious, [ — ] pure, and cool, 

And meads, with life, and mirth, and beauty crown'd? — Id. 

How dead the vegetable kingdom lies ! 

How dumb the tuneful [ ] ! — Thomson. 

Self-love and Reason to one end aspire, 

Pain [ — ] their aversion, pleasure [ — ] their desire ; 

But greedy that its object would devour, 

This [ — ] taste the honey, and not wound the flower. — Pope. 

LESSON III.—FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

FIGURE II. PLEONASM. 

According to their deeds, accordingly he will repay j fury 
to his adversaries, recompense to his enemies. — Bible. 

My head is filled with dew, and my locks with the drops of the 
night. — Solomon's Song, v. 2. 

Thou hast chastised me, and I was chastised, as a bullock 
unaccustomed to the yoke : turn thou me, and I shall be turned ; 
for thou art the Lord my God. — Jer. xxxi. 18. 

Consider the lilies of the field how they grow. — Mat. vi. 28. 

He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord. — 2 Cor. x. 17. 

He too is witness, noblest of the train 

That wait on man, the flight-performing horse. — Cowper. 

FIGURE HI. SYLLEPSIS. 

1 Thou art Simon the son of Jona : thou shalt be called 
Cephas ;' which is, by interpretation, a stone. — John, i. 42. 

Thus saith the Lord of hosts : ' Behold I will break the bow 
of Elam, the chief of their might.' — Jer. xlix. 35. 

Behold I lay in Zion a stumbling-stone and rock of offence ; 
and whosoever believeth on him shall not be ashamed. — Rom. 
ix. 33. 

Thus Conscience pleads her cause within the breast, 
Though long rebell'd against, not yet suppress'd. — Cowper 



242 EXGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much ; 
Wisdom is humble that he knows no more. — Id. 

For those the race of Israel oft forsook 
Their living strength, and unfrequented left 
His righteous altar, bowing lowly down 
To bestial gods. — Milton. 

LESSON IV.— FIGURES OP SYNTAX. 

FIGURE IV. ENALLAGE. 

Let me tell you, Cassius, you yourself 

Are much condemned to have an itching palm, 

To sell and mart your offices for gold. — Shakspeare. 

Come, Philomelus ; let us instant go, 

O'erturn his bow'rs, and lay his castle low. — Thomson. 

Then palaces shall rise ; the joyful son 

Shall finish what the short-liv'd sire begun. — Pope. 

Such was that temple built by Solomon, 

Than whom none richer reign'd o'er Israel. — Au. 

He spoke : with fatal eagerness we burn, 

And quit the shores, undestin'd to return. — Day. 

Still as he pass'd, the nations he sublimes. — Thomson. 

Sometimes, with early morn, he mounted gay. — Id. 

FIGURE V. HYPERBATON. 

Such resting found the sole of unblest feet. — Milton. 
Yet, though successless, will the toil delight. — Thomson 

Where, 'midst the changeful scen'ry ever new, 
Fancy a thousand wondrous forms descries. — Beattie. 

Yet so much bounty is in God, such grace, 
That who advance his glory, not their own, 
Them he himself to glory will advance. — Milton. 

But apt the mind or fancy is to rove 
Uncheck'd, and of her roving is no end. — Id. 

No quick reply to dubious questions make ; 
Suspense and caution still prevent mistake. — Denham. 

LESSON V.— FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 
FIGURE I. SIMILE. 

Human greatness is short and transitory, <z» the odour (jf ' 



PROSODY. PARSING. 243 

Terrestrial happiness is of short continuance : the brightness 
of the flame is wasting its fuel, the fragrant flower is passing away 
in its own odours. — Id. 

Thy nod is as the earthquake that shakes the mountains ; and 
thy smile, as the dawn of the vernal day. — Id. 

Plants raised with tenderness are seldom strong ; 
Man's coltish disposition asks the thong ; 
And without discipline, the fav'rite child, 
Like a neglected forester, runs wild. — Cowper. 

FIGURE n\ METAPHOR. 

Cathmon, thy name is a pleasant gale. — Ossian. 

Rolled into himself he flew, wide on the bosom of winds. 
The old oak felt his departure, and shook its whistling head. — Id, 

Carazan gradually lost the inclination to do good, as he 
acquired the power ; and as the hand of time scattered snow 
upon his head, the freezing influence extended to his bosom. — 
Hawkesworth. 

The sun grew iveary of gilding the palaces of Morad ; the 
clouds of sorrow gathered round his head ; and the tempest of 
hatred roared about his dwelling. — Dr. Johnson. 

The tree of knowledge, blasted by disputes, 
Produces sapless leaves in stead of fruits. — Denham 

LESSON VI.— FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

FIGURE HI. ALLEGORY. 

" But what think ye ? — A certain man had two sons ; and 
he came to the first, and said, ' Son, go work to-day in my vine- 
yard.' He answered and said, i I will not :' but afterward he 
repented, and went. And he came to the second, and said like- 
wise. And he answered and said, ' I go, sir :' and went not. 
Whether of them twain did the will of his father V They say 
unto him, " The first"— Mat, xxi. 28. 

FIGURE IV. METONYMY. 

Swifter than a whirlwind, flies the leaden death. — Hervey. 
i Be all the dead forgot,' said Foldath's bursting wrath. 
i Did not I fail in the field V — Ossian. 

Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke. — Gray. 

Firm in his love, resistless in his hate, 

His arm is conquest, and his frown is fate. — Day. 

At length the world, renew'd by calm repose, 

Was strong for toil ; the dappled morn arose. — Parnett. 



244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

What modes of sight betwixt each wide extreme, 

The mole's dim curtain and the lynx's beam ! 

Of hearing from the life that fills the flood, 

To that which warbles through the vernal wood ! — Pope. 

FIGURE V. SYNECDOCHE. 

'Twas then his threshold first receiv'd a guest. — Parnell, 

For yet by swains alone the world he knew, 

Whose feet came wand'ring o'er the nightly dew. — Id, 

Flush'd by the spirit of the genial year, 

Now from the virgin's cheek a fresher bloom 

Shoots, less and less, the live carnation round. — Thomson* 

LESSON VIL— FIGURES OP RHETORIC. 

FIGURE VI. HYPERBOLE. 

I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice ; his spear, the blasted 
fir ; his shield the rising moon ; he sat on the shore, like a 
cloud of mist on the hill. — Ossian. 

At which the universal host up sent 

A shout that tore Hell's concave, and beyond 

Frighted the reign of Chaos and old Night. — Milton, 

Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood 
Clean from my hand? No ; this my hand will rather 
The multitudinous seas incarnadine, 
Making the green one red. — Shakspeare. 

Endless tears flow down in streams. — Swifl. 

FIGURE VII. VISION. 

How mighty is their defence who reverently trust in the aria 
of God ! How powerfully do they contend who fight with 
lawful weapons ! Hark ! 7 Tis the voice of eloquence, pouring 
forth the living energies of the soul ; pleading, with generous 
indignation, the cause of injured humanity against lawless 
might, and reading the awful destiny that awaits the oppressor ! 
— I see the stern countenance of despotism overawed ! I see 
the eye fallen that kindled the elements of war ! I see the 
brow relaxed that scowled defiance at hostile thousands \ I see 
the knees tremble that trod with firmness the embattled field ! 
Fear has entered that heart which ambition had betrayed into 
violence ! The tyrant feels himself a man, and subject to the 
weakness of humanity ! — Behold ! and tell me, is that power 
contemptible which can thus find access to the sternest hearts ? — ■ 
Author 



mosoDY. — parsing. 245 

LESSON VIII.— FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

FIGURE VIII. APOSTROPHE. 

Yet still they breathe destruction, still go on 
Inhumanly ingenious to find out 
New pains for life, new terrors for the grave ; 
Artificers of death ! Still monarchs dream 
Of universal empire growing up 
From universal ruin. Blast the design. 
Great God of Hosts I nor let thy creatures fall 
Unpitied victims at Ambition's shrine. — Porteus. 

FIGURE IX. PERSONIFICATION. 

Hail, sacred Polity, by Freedom rear'd ! 

Hail, sacred Freedom, when by Law restrain'd ! 

Without you, what were man ? A grov'ling herd, 

In darkness, wretchedness, and want enchain'd. — Beat. 

Let cheerful Merrtry, from her purest cells, 

Lead forth a goodly train of Virtues fair, 

Cherish'd in early youth, now paying back 

With tenfold usury the pious care. — Porteus. 

FIGURE X. EROTESIS. 

He that chastiseth the heathen, shall not he correct? he that 
teacheth man knowledge, shall not he know? — Psal. xciv. 10. 

Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots? 
then may ye also do good, that are accustomed to do evil.— 
Jeremiah, xiii. 23. 

FIGURE XI. ECPHONESIS, 

O that my head were waters, and mine eyes a fountain of 

tears, that I might weep day and night for the slain of the 

daughter of my people ! O that I had in the wilderness a 

lodging place of way-faring men, that I might leave my people, 

' and go from them ! — Jeremiah, ix. i. 

LESSON IX.— FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

FIGURE XII. ANTITHESIS. 

On this side modesty is engaged ; on that, impudence : on 
this, chastity ; on that, lewdness : on this, integrity ; on that, 
fraud : on this, piety ; on that, profaneness : on this, constancy 
c:a that, fickleness : on this, honour ; on that, baseness : on this, 
moderation ; on that, unbridled passion. — Cicero. 

She, from the rending earth, and bursting skies, 

Saw gods descend, and fiends infernal rise ; 

Here fix'd the dreadful, there the blest abodes ; 

Fear made her devils, and weak hope her g-ods. — Pope. 
21* 



246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
FIGURE XIH. CLIMAX. 

Virtuous actions are necessarily approved by the awakened 
conscience ; and when they are approved, they are commended 
to practice ; and when they are practised, they become easy ; 
and when they become easy, they afford pleasure ; and when 
they afford pleasure, they are done frequently ; and when they 
are done frequently, they are confirmed by habit: and con* 
firmed habit is a kind of second nature. 

FIGURE XIV. IRONY. 

And it came to pass at noon, that Elijah mocked them, and 
said, 6 Cry aloud ; for he is a god : either he is talking, or he 
is pursuing, or he is in [on] a journey, or peradventure he 
sleepeth, and must be awaked P — 1 Kings, xviii. 27. 

Some lead a life unblamable and just, 
Their own dear virtue their unshaken trust ; 
They never sin — or if (as all offend) 
Some trivial slips their daily walk attend, 
The poor are near at hand, the charge is small, 
A slight gratuity atones for all. — Cowper. 



QUESTIONS ON PROSODY. 

LESSON I. — PUNCTUATION. 

Of what does Prosody treat ? 

What is Punctuation ? 

What are the principal points, or marks ? 

What pauses are denoted by the first four points ? • ■ 

What pauses are required by the other four ? 

What is the general use of the comma 1 

How many rules for the comma are there 1 and what are their heads'? 

What says Rule 1st of simple sentences? — Rule 2d of simple members? — 
Rule 3d of more than two words? — Rule 4th of only two words? — Rule 5th 
of words in pairs? — Rule 6th of words put absolute? — Rule 7th of words 
in apposition? — Rule 8th of adjectives? — Rule 9th of finite verbs? — Rule 
10th of infinitives? — Rule 11th of participles? — Rule 12th of adverbs? — 
Rule 13th of conjunctions ? — Rule 14th of prepositions? — Rule 15th of in* 
Urjections? — Rule 16th of words repeated? — Rule 17th of dependent quota- 
tions? 

LESSON II. — PUNCTUATION. 

How many and what exceptions are there to Rule 1st for the comma? — to 
Rule 2d?— to Rule 3d?— to Rule 4th?— to Rule 5th?— to Rule 6th?— to 
Rule 7th?— to Rule 8th?— to Rule 9th?— to Rule 10th?— to Rule 11th?— 
to Rule 12th ?— to Rule 13th ?— to Rule 14th ? -to Rule 15th ?— to Rule 
16th?— to Rule 17th? 

When are different wards said to bs in the same •onstfuetionl 



PHOSODY.— QUESTIONS. 247 

LESSON III. — PUNCTUATION. 

What is the general use of the semicolon ? 

How many rules are there for the semicolon ? and what arc their heads 1 

What says Rule 1st of compound members? — Rule 2d of simple members? 

— Rule 3d of words in apposition ? 
What is the general use of the colon 1 

How many rules are there for the colon ? and what are their heads 1 
What says Rule 1st of additional remarks? — Rule 2d of greater pauses?—' 

Rule 3d of independent quotations? 
W 7 hat is the general use of the period 1 

How many rules are there for the period 1 and what are their heads % 
What says Rule 1st of distinct sentences? — Rule 2d of allied sentences?- 

Rule 3d of abbreviations? 

LESSON IV. — PUNCTUATION. 

What is the use of the dash 1 

How many rules are there for the dash ? and what are their heads 1 

W T hat says Rule 1st of abrupt pauses? — Rule 2d of emphatic pauses? 

W T hat is the use of the note of interrogation ? 

How many rules are there for it % and what are their heads ? 

W 7 hat says Rule 1st of questions direct ? — Rule 2d of questions united ?— 

Rule 3d of questions indirect? 
What is the use of the note of exclamation 1 
How many rules are there for it? and what are their heads ? 
What says Rule 1st of interjections ? — Rule 2d of invocations ? — Rule 3d of 

exclamatory qu&stior,s? 

LESSON V. — PUNCTUATION. 

What is the use of the parenthesis 1 

How many rules are there for it 1 and what are their heads % 
What says Rule 1 st of incidental clauses ? — Rule 2d of included points ? 
What is said about other marks 1 

What is the use of the apostrophe ? — of the hyphen 1 — of the diaeresis ?— 
of the acute accent ? — of the grave accent ? — of the circumflex 1 — of the 
breve 1 — of the macron ? — of the ellipsis ? — of the caret ? — of the brace 1 — 
of the section % — of the paragraph ? — of the quotation points 1 — of the 
crotchets 1 — of the index ? — of the asterisk, the obelisk, the double dagger, 
and the parallel ? 

[Having correctly answered the foregoing questions, the pupil should be 
taught to apply what he has learned ; and, for this purpose, he may be re- 
quired to read the preface to this volume, or a portion of any other accu- 
rately pointed book, and to assign a reason for every mark he finds.] 

LESSON VI. — UTTERANCE. 

What is Utterance? and what does it include 1 

W T hat is pronunciation? — What does pronunciation require'? 

What are the just powers of the letters ? 

What is accent ? — Is every word accented ? 

Can a word have more than one accent ? 

What four things distinguish the elegant speaker 1 

What is elocution 1 — What does elocution require 1 

W 7 hat is emphasis ? 

What are* pauses ? and what is said of their duration? 

What are inflections ? — What is called the rising inflection 1 — What is called 

the falling inflection ? — How are these inflections exemplified ? — How are 

they used in asking questions % 
What are tones ? and why do they deserve particular attention 1 



248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON VII. — FIGURES. 

What is a Figure in grammar'? 

How many kinds of figures are there ? 

What is a figure of etymology ? 

How many and what are the figures of etymology 1 

What is aphseresis ? — prosthesis ?-r-syncope ? — apocope ? — paragoge 1— 
diaeresis ? — syndesis ? — tmesis ? 

What is a figure of syntax ? 

How many and what are the figures of syntax ? 

What is ellipsis in grammar ? Are sentences often elliptical ? 

How can there be an ellipsis of the article? — the noun? — the adjective 1 — 
the pronoun? — the verb ? — the participle] — the adverb? — the conjunc- 
tion? — the preposition ? — the interjection ? — a clause? 

What is pleonasm ? — and when is this figure allowable ? 

What is syllepsis ? — enallage ? — hyperbaton ? — what is said of hyperba- 
ton ? 

LESSON VIII. — FIGURES. 

What is a figure of rhetoric ? — What name have such figures ? 

Do figures of rhetoric often occur ? — On what are they founded ? 

How many and what are the principal figures of rhetoric ? 

What is a simile ? — a metaphor ? — an allegory ? — a metonymy ? — synec- 
doche ? — hyperbole ? — vision ? — apostrophe ?— personification ? — erotesis 7 
— ecphonesis ? — antithesis ? — climax ? — irony ? 

LESSON IX. — VERSIFICATION. 

What is Versification ? — What is the quantity of a syllable ? 

How is quantity denominated ? — How is it said to be proportioned ? 

On what does quantity depend ? and what sounds are the most easily 

lengthened ? 
What words are variable in quantity ? and what syllables are fixed? 
What is rhyme ? — What is blank verse ? 

Of what does a line of poetry consist ? — Of what does a foot consist % 
What are the principal English feet ? 
What is an iambus ? — a trochee ? — an anapaest ? — a dactyl ? 
How many kinds of verse have we? 
What is scanning 1 

LESSON X. — VERSIFICATION. 

What syllables are accented in an iambic line ? 
What are the several measures of iambic verse ? 
What syllables are accented in a trochaic line ? 
What are the several measures of trochaic verse ? 
What syllables are accented in an anapaestic line'? 
What are the several measures of anapaestic verse ? 
What syllables are accented in a dactylic line ? 
What are the several measures of dactylic verse ? 

[Now parse the nine lessons of the Ninth Chapter; explaining every 
thing of which the teacher may demand an explanation.] 

EXERCI§ES IN PROSOI>Y. 

f^ 3 [When the pupil can readily answer all the questions on Prosody, 
and apply the rules of punctuation to any composition in which the points 
are rightly inserted, he should write out the following exercises, supplying 
what is required.] 



m 



PROSODY. EXERCISES. 249 

EXERCISE I.— PUNCTUATION. 

Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma where it is 

requisite. 

Examples wider Rule 1. 
The dogmatist's assurance is paramount to argument. 
The whole course of his argumentation comes to nothing. 
The fleldmouse builds her garner under ground. 
Exc. The first principles of almost ail sciences are few. 
What he gave me to publish was but a small part. 
To remain insensible to such provocation is apathy. 
Minds ashamed of poverty would be proud of affluence. 

Under Rule 2. 
I was eyes to the blind and feet was I to the lame. 
They are gone but the remembrance of them is sweet. 
He has passed it is likely through varieties of fortune. 
The mind though free has a governor within itself. 
They I doubt not oppose the bill on public principles. 
Be silent be grateful and adore. 

He is an adept in language who always speaks the truth. 
The race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong. 
Exc. 1. He that has far to go should not hurry. 
Hobbes believed the eternal truths which he opposed. 
Feeble are all pleasures in which the heart has no share. 
Exc. 2. A good name is better than precious ointment. 
Thinkest thou that duty shall have dread to speak 1 
The spleen is seldom felt where Flora reigns. 

Under Rule 3. 
The city army court espouse my cause. 
Wars pestilences and diseases are terrible instructers. 
Walk daily in a pleasant airy and umbrageous garden. 
Wit spirits faculties but make it worse. 
Men wives and children stare cry out and run. 

Under Rule 4. 
Hope and fear are essentials in religion. 
Praise and adoration are perfective of our souls. 
We know bodies and their properties most perfectly. 
Satisfy yourselves with what is rational and attainable. 
Exc. 1. God will rather look to the inward motions of the mind 

than to the outward form of the body. 
Gentleness is unassuming in opinion and temperate in zeal. 
Exc. 2, He has experienced prosperity and adversity. 
All sin essentially is and must be mortal. 



250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exc. 3. One person is chosen chairman or moderator. 
Duration or time is measured by motion. 
The governor or viceroy is chosen annually. 
Exc. 4. Reflection reason still the ties improve. 
His neat plain parlour wants^our modern style. 

Under Rule 5. 

I inquired and rejected consulted and deliberated. 
Seed-time and harvest cold and heat summer and winter day 
and night shall not cease. 

EXERCISE II.— PUNCTUATION. 

Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma where it is 

requisite. 

Under Rule 6, 

The night being dark they did not proceed. 

There being no other coach we had no alternative. 

Remember my son that human life is the journey of a dav. 

All circumstances considered it seems right. 

He that overcometh to him will I give power. 

Your land strangers devour it in your presence. 

Ah sinful nation a people laden with iniquity! 

With heads declin'd ye cedars homage pay ; 

Be smooth ye rocks ye rapid floods give way ! 

Under Rule 7. 

Now Philomel sweet songstress charms the night. 

'Tis chanticleer the shepherd's clock announcing day. 

The evening star love's harbinger appears. 

The queen of night fair Dian smiles serene. 

There is yet one man Micaiah the son of Imlah. 

Our whole company man by man ventured down. 

As a work of wit the Dunciad has few equals. 
In the same temple the resounding wood 
All vocal beings hymned their equal God. 

Exc. 1. The last king of Rome was Tarquinius Superbua 

Bossuet highly eulogizes Maria Theresa of Austria. 

Exc. 2. For he went and dwelt by the brook Cherith. 

Remember the example of the patriarch Joseph. 

Exc. 3. I wisdom dwell with prudence. 

Ye fools be ye of an understanding heart. 

I tell you that which you yourselves do know. 

Exc. 4. I crown thee king of intimate delights. 

I count the world a stranger for thy sake. 



PROSODY. EXERCISES. 261 

And this makes friends such miracles below. 
God has pronounced it death to taste that tree. 
Grace makes the slave a freeman. 

Under Rule 8. 

Deaf with the noise I took my hasty flight. 

Him piteous of his youth soft disengage. 

I played a while obedient to the fair. 

Love free as air spreads his light wings and flies. 

Then active still and unconfmed his mind 

Explores the vast extent of ages past. 

But there is yet a liberty unsung 

By poets and by senators unpraised. 
Exc. I will marry a wife beautiful as the Houries. 
He was a man able to speak upon doubtful questions. 
These are the persons anxious for the change. 
Are they men worthy of confidence and support ? 

Under Rule 9. 

Poverty wants some things — avarice all things. 

Honesty has one face — flattery two. 

One king is too soft and easy — an other too fiery. 

Mankind's esteem they court — and he his own : 

Theirs the wild chase of false felicities ; 

His the compos' d possession of the true. 

EXERCISE III.— PUNCTUATION. 

Copy the following sentences , and insert the comma where it is 

requisite. 

Under Rule 10, 

My desire is to live in peace. 

The great difficulty was to compel them to pay their debts. 

To strengthen our virtue God bids us trust in him. 

I made no bargain with you to live always drudging. 

To sum up all her tongue confessed the shrew. 

To proceed my own adventure was still more laughable. 
We come not with design of wasteful prey 
To drive the country force the swains away. 

Under Rule 11. 

Having given this answer he departed. 

Some sunk to beasts find pleasure end in pain. 

Eased of her load subjection grows more light. 

Death still draws nearer never seeming near. 

He lies full low gored with wounds and weltering in his blood. 



252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Kind is fell Lucifer compared to thee. 
Man considered in himself is helpless and wretched. 
Like scattered down by howling Eurus blown. 
He with wide nostrils snorting skims the wave. 
Youth is properly speaking introductory to manhood. 
Exc. He kept his eye fixed on the country before him. 
They have their part assigned them to act. 
Years will not repair the injuries done by him. 

Under Rule 12. 

Yes we both were philosophers. 

However providence saw fit to cross our design. 

Besides I know that the eye of the public is upon me. 

The fact certainly is much otherwise. 

For nothing surely can be more inconsistent. 

Under Rule 13. 
For in such retirement the soul is strengthened. 
It engages our desires ; and in some degree satisfies them. 
But of every Christian virtue piety is an essential part. 
The English verb is variable ; as love lovest loves. 

Under Rule 14. 
In a word charity is the soul of social life. 
By the bowstring I can repress violence and fraud. 
Some by being too artful forfeit the reputation of probity. 
With regard to morality I was not indifferent. 

Under Rule 15. 
Lo earth receives him from the bending skies ! 
Behold I am against thee O inhabitant of the valley ! 

Under Rule 16. 
I would never consent never never never. 
His teeth did chatter chatter chatter still. 
Come come come come — to bed to bed to bed. 

Under Rule 17. 
He cried c Cause every man to go out from me.' 
1 Almet J said he i remember what thou hast seen.' 
I answered < Mock not thy servant who is but a worm before 
thee. 7 

EXERCISE IV.— PUNCTUATION. 

1. Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma and the 

semicolon where they are requisite. 

Under Rule I. 

1 Man is weak 7 answered his companion i knowledge is more 

than equivalent to fecce.' 



PROSODY. EXERCISES. 253 

To judge rightly of the present we must oppose it to the past 
for all judgment is comparative and of the future nothing 
can be known. 
i Content is natural wealth' says Socrates to which I shall add 
i luxury is artificial poverty.' 

Converse and love mankind might strongly draw 
When love was liberty and nature law. 

Under Rule 2 ♦ 

Be wise to-day 'tis madness to defer. 

The present all their care the future his. 

Wit makes an enterpriser sense a man. 

Ask thought for joy grow rich and hoard within. 

Song soothes our pains and age has pains to soothe. 

Here an enemy encounters there a rival supplants him. 

Our answer to their reasons is No to their scoffs nothing. 

Under Rule 3. 
In Latin there are six cases namely the nominative the genitive 

the dative the accusative the vocative and the ablative. 
Most English nouns form the plural by adding s as boy boys 

nation nations king kings bay bays. 
Bodies are such as are endued with a vegetable soul as plants 

a sensitive soul as animals or a rational soul as the body of 

man. 

2. Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma, the semicolon^ 
and the colon where they are requisite. 

Under Rule 1. 
Death wounds to cure we fall we rise we reign. 
Bliss ! — there is none but unprecarious bliss. 
That is the gem sell all and purchase that. 
Beware of usurpation God is the judge of all. 

Under Rule 2. 

I have the world here before me I will review it at leisure 
surely happiness is somewhere to be found. 

A melancholy enthusiast courts persecution and when he can- 
not obtain it afflicts himself with absurd penances but the 
holiness of St. Paul consisted in the simplicity of a pious 
life. 

Observe his awful portrait and admire 
Nor stop at wonder imitate and live. 

Under Rule 3. 

Such is our Lord's injunction "Watch and pray," 

22 



254 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

He died praying for his persecutors " Father forgive them they 

know not what they do." 
On his cane was inscribed this motto " Festina lente" 

3. Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma, the semicolon} 
the colon, and the period where they are requisite. 

Under Rule 1. 

Then appeared the sea and the dry land the mountains rose 
and the* rivers flowed the sun and moon began their course 
in the skies herbs and plants clothed the ground the air the 
earth and the waters were stored with their respective inhabi- 
tants at last man was made in the image of God 

In general those parents have most reverence who most deserve 
it for he that lives well cannot be despised 

Under Rule 2. 
Civil accomplishments frequently give rise to fame but a dis- 
tinction is to be made between fame and true honour the 
statesman the orator or the poet may be famous while yet 
the man himself is far from being honoured 

Under Rule 3. 

Glass was invented in Eng by Benalt a monk A D 664 
The Roman Era U C commenced A C 1753 years 
Here is the Literary Life of S T Coleridge Esq 

EXERCISE V.— PUNCTUATION. * 

1. Copy the following sentences, and insert the dash, and such 
other points as are neussary. 

Under Rule 1. 
You say famous very often and I don't know exactly what it 

means a famous uniform famous doings What does famous 

mean 
O why famous means Now don't you know what famous means 

It means It is a word that people say It is the fashion to say 

it It means it means famous. 

Under Rule 2. 
But this life is not all there is there is full surely an other 
state abiding us And if there is what is thy prospect O re- 
morseless obdurate Thou shalt hear it would be thy wisdom 
to think thou now hearest the sound of that trumpet which 
shall awake the dead Return O yet return to the Father of 
mercies and live 

The future pleases Why The present pains 
Bu f that's a secret yes which all men know 



PROSODY. EXERCISES. 255 

2. Copy the following sentences, and insert the note of interro- 

gation, and such other points as are necessary. 

Under Rule 1. 
Does nature bear a tyrant's breast 
Is she the friend of stern control 
Wears she the despot's purple vest 
Or fetters she the free-born soul 
Why should a man whose blood is warm within 
Sit like his grandsire cut in alabaster 
Who art thou courteous stranger and from whence 
Why roam thy steps to this abandon'd dale 

Under Rule 2. 

Who bid the stork Columbus-like explore 
Heavens not his own and worlds unknown before 
Who calls the council states the certain day 
Who forms the phalanx and who points the way 

Under Rule 3. 

Ask of thy mother Earth why oaks are made 
Taller and stronger than the weeds they shade 
They asked me who I was and whither I was going* 

3. Copy the following sentences, and insert the note of exclama- 

tion, and such otlier points as are necessary. 

Under Rule 1. 
Alas how is that rugged heart forlorn 
Behold the victor vanquish'd by the worm 
Bliss sublunary bliss proud words and \ain 

Under Rule 2. 
O Popular Applause what heart of man 
Is proof against thy sweet seducing charms 
More than thy balm O Gilead heals the wound 

Under Rule 3. 

How often have I loitered o'er thy green 
Where humble happiness endear'd each scene 
What black despair what horror fills his heart 

4. Copy the following sentences, and insert the parenthesis, and 

such other points as are necessary. 

Under Rule 1. 
And all the question wrangle e'er so long 
Is only this If God has placed him wrong 



. 



256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

And who what god foretells who speaks in things 
Still louder than in words shall dare deny 

Under Rule 2. 

Say was it virtue more though Heav'n ne'er gave 
Lamented Digby sunk thee to the grave 

Where is that thrift that avarice of time 

glorious avarice thought of death inspires 

And oh the last last what can words express 
Thought reach the last last silence of a friend 

EXERCISE VI.— PUNCTUATION. 

Copy the following promiscuous sentences, and insert the points 

which they require. 

As one of them opened his sack he espied his money 

They cried out the more exceedingly Crucify him 

The soldiers' counsel was to kill the prisoners 

Great injury these vermin mice and rats do in the field 

It is my son's coat an evil beast hath devoured him 

Peace of all worldly blessings is the most valuable 

By this time the very foundation was removed 

The only words he uttered were I am a Roman citizen 

Some distress either felt or feared gnaws like a worm 

How then must I determine Have I no interest If I have not I 

am stationed here to no purpose Harris 
In the fire the destruction was so swift sudden vast and miser- 
able as to have no parallel in story 
Dionysius the tyrant of Sicily was far from being happy 

1 ask now Verres what thou hast to advance 
Excess began and sloth sustains the trade 
Fame can never reconcile a man to a death bed 
They that sail on the sea tell of the danger 

Be doers of the word and not hearers only 

The storms of wint'ry time will quickly pass 

Here hope that smiling angel stands 

Disguise I see thou art a wickedness 

There are no tricks in plain and simple faith 

True love strikes root in reason passion's foe 

Two gods divide them all Pleasure and Gain 

I am satisfied My son has done his duty 

Remember Almet the vision which thou hast seen 

I beheld an enclosure beautiful as the gardens of paradise 

The knowledge which I have received I will communicate 

But I am not yet happy and therefore I despair 

Wretched mortals said I to what purpose are you busy 



PROSODY. EXERCISES. 257 

Bad as the world is respect is always paid to virtue 

In a word he views men in the clear sunshine of charity 

This being the case I am astonished and amazed 

These men approached him and saluted him king 

Excellent and obliging sages these undoubtedly 

Yet at the same time the man himself undergoes a change 

One constant effect of idleness is to nourish the passions 

You heroes regard nothing but glory 

Take care lest while you strive to reach the top you fall 

Proud and presumptuous they can brook no opposition 

Nay some awe of religion may still subsist 

Then said he Lo I come to do thy will O God 

As for me behold I am in your hand 

Now I Paul myself beseech you 

He who lives always in public cannot live to his own soul 

whereas he who retires remains calm 
Therefore behold I even I will utterly forget you 
This text speaks only of those to whom it speaks 
Yea he warmeth himself and saith Aha I am warm 
King Agrippa believest thou the prophets 

EXERCISE VII.— PUNCTUATION. 

Copy the following promiscuous sentences^ and insert the points 
which they require. 

To whom can riches give repute or trust 
Content or pleasure but the good and just 
To him no high no low no great no small 
He fills he bounds connects and equals all 
Reason's whole pleasure all the joys of sense 
Lie in three words health peace and competence 
Not so for once indulg'd they sweep the main 
Deaf to the call or hearing hear in vain 
Say will the falcon stooping from above 
Smit with her varying plumage spare the dove 
Throw Egypt's by and offer in its stead 
Offer the crown on Berenice's head 
Falsely luxurious will not man awake 
And springing from the bed of sloth enjoy 
The cool the fragrant and the silent hour 
Yet thus it is nor otherwise can be 
So far from aught romantic what I sing 
Thyself first know then love a self there is 
Of virtue fond that kindles at her charms 
How far that little candle throws his beams 
So shines a good deed in a naughty world 
You have too much respect upon the world 

22* 



258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

They lose it that do buy it with much care 
How many things by season season'd are 
To their right praise and true perfection 
Canst thou descend from converse with the skies 
And seize thy brothers throat for what a clod 
In two short precepts all your business lies 
Would you be great be virtuous and be wise 
But sometimes virtue starves while vice is fed 
What then is the reward of virtue bread 
A life all turbulence and noise may seem 
To him that leads it wise and to be prais'd 
But wisdom is a pearl with most success 
Sought in still waters and beneath clear skies 
All but the swellings of the softened heart 
That waken not disturb the tranquil mind 
Inspiring God who boundless spirit all 
And unremitting energy pervades 
Adjusts sustains and agitates the whole 
Ye ladies for indiff'rent in your cause 
I should deserve to forfeit all applause 
Whatever shocks or gives the least offence 
To virtue delicacy truth or sense 
Try the criterion 'tis a faithful guide 
Nor has nor can have Scripture on its side 

EXERCISE VIIL— SCANNING. 

Divide the following verses into the feet which compose them, and 
distinguish by marks the long and the short syllables. 

DEITY. 

Alone thou sitst above the everlasting hills, 
And all immensity of space thy presence fills ; 

For thou alone art God — as God thy saints adore thee ; 

Jehovah is thy name — they have no gods before thee. 

HEALTH. 

Up the dewy mountain, Health is bounding lightly ; 

On her brows a garland, twin'd with richest posies : 
Gay is she, elate with hope, and smiling sprightly ; 

Redder is her cheek, and sweeter, than the rose is. 

IMPENITENCE. 

The impenitent sinner whom mercy empowers, 
Dishonours that*goodness which seeks to restore ; 

As the sands of the desert are water'd by showers, 
Yet barren and fruitless remain as before, 



TflOSODY. EXERCISES. 259 



PIETY. 



Holy and pure are the pleasures of piety, 

Drawn from the fountain of mercy and lore ; 

Endless, exhaustless, exempt from satiety, 
Rising unearthly, and soaring above. 



A SIMILE. 

The bolt that strikes the tow'ring cedar dead, 
Oft passe? harmless o'er the hazel's head. 

AN OTHER. 

Yet to their gen'ral's voice they soon obey'd 

Innum'rable. As when the potent rod 

Of Amram's son, in Egypt's evil day, 

Wav'd round the coast, up call'd a pitchy cloud 

Of locusts, warping on the eastern wind, 

That o'er the realm of impious Pharaoh hung 

Like night, and darken'd all the land of Nile. — MiUm* 

ELEGIAC STANZA. 

Thy name is dear — 'tis virtue balm'd in love ; 
Yet e'en thy name a pensive sadness brings. 
Ah ! wo the day, our hearts were doom'd to prove, 
That fondest love but points affliction's stings ! 

CUPID. 

Zephyrs, moving bland, and breathing fragrant 
With the sweetest odours of the spring, 

O'er the winged boy, a thoughtless vagrant, 
Slumb'ring in the grove, their perfumes fling. 

DIVINE POWER. 

When the winds o'er Gennesaret roar'd, 

And the billows tremendously rose, 
The Saviour but utter'd the word, 

They were hush'd to the calmest repose. 

INVITATION. 

Come from the mount of the leopard, spouse, 

Corne from the den of the lion ; 
Come to the tent of thy shepherd, spouse, 

Come to the mountain of Zion. 

ADMONITION. 

In the days of thy youth, 

Remember thy God : 
O ! forsake not his truth. 

Incur not his rod ! 



260 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



COMMENDATION. 

Constant and duteous. 

Meek as the dove, 
How art thou beauteous. 

Daughter t)f love ! 

EDWIN, AN ODE. 

I. STROPHE. 

Led by the pow'r of song-, and nature's love, 
Which raise the soul all vulgar themes above, 
The mountain grove 
Would Edwin rove, 
In pensive mood alone ; 
And seek the woody dell, 
Where noontide shadows fell, 
Cheering, 
Veering, 
Mov'd by the zephyr's swell. 
Here nurs'd he thoughts to genius only knowiij 
When nought was heard around 
But sooth'd the rest profound 
Of rural beauty on her mountain throne. 
Nor less he lov'd (rude nature's child) 
The elemental conflict wild ; 
When, fold on fold, above was pil'd 
The watery swathe, careering on the wind. 
Such scenes he saw 
With solemn awe, 
As in the presence of th' Eternal mind. 
Fix'd he gaz'd, 
Tranc'd and rais'd, 
Sublimely rapt in awful pleasure undefined. 

H. ANTISTROPHE. 

Reckless of dainty joys, he finds delight 
Where feebler souls but tremble with affright 
Lo ! now, within the deep ravine, 
A black impending cloud 
Infolds him in its shroud ; 
And dark and darker glooms the scene. 
Through the thicket streaming, 
Lightnings now are gleaming, 
Thunders rolling dread, 
Shake the mountain's head 
Nature's war 
Echoes far, 
O'er ether borne. 



PROSODY. EXERCISES. 261 

That flash 
The ash 
Has scath'd and torn ! 
Now it rages : 
Oaks of ages, 
Writhing in the furious blast, 
Wide their leafy honours cast j 
Their gnarled arms do force to force oppose : 
Deep rooted in the crevic'd rock, 
The sturdy trunk sustains the shock, 
Like dauntless hero firm against assailing foes. 

ni. EPODE. 

' O Thou who sits above these vapours dense, 
And rul'st the storm by thine omnipotence ! 
Making the coll.ied cloud thy car, 
Coursing the winds, thou rid'st afar, 
Thy blessings to dispense. 
The early and the latter rain, 
Which fertilize the dusty plain, 

Thy bounteous goodness pours. 
Dumb be the atheist tongue abhorr'd ! 
All nature owns thee, sovereign Lord ! 

And works thy gracious will ; 
At thy command the tempest roars, 
At thy command is still. 
Thy mercy o'er this scene sublime presides j 
'Tis mercy forms the veil that hides 
The ardent solar beam ; 
While, from the volleyed breast of heaven, 
Transient gleams of dazzling light, 
Flashing on the balls 8f sight, 
Make darkness darker seem. 
Thou mov'st the quick and sulph'rous leven — 
The tempest-driven 
Cloud is riven ; 
And the thirsty mountain side 
Drinks gladly of the gushing tide.' 
So breath'd young Edwin, when the summer shower 
From out that dark o'erchamb'ring cloud, 
With lightning flash and thunder loud 
Burst in wild grandeur o'er his solitary bower. — Author, 



THE END OP PART FOURTH. 



KEY 

TO THE 

EXAMPLES OF FALSE CONSTRUCTION 

DESIGNED FOR ORAL EXERCISES, 

UNDER 
THE RULES OP SYNTAX AND THE NOTES, 



f^T [The examples of False Syntax here explained, should be corrected 
orally by the pupil, according to the formules given under the rules ; and 
the following corrections may afterwards be used as examples for parsing, 
if necessary.] 

RULE I.— ARTICLES. 
Note 1. 

This is a hard saying. 

An humble heart shall find favour. 

Passing from an earthly to a heavenly diadem. 

Few have the happiness of living with such a one. 

She evinced a uniform adherence to the truth. 

An hospital is an asylum for the sick. 

This is truly a wonderful invention. 

He is a younger man than we supposed. 

A humorsome child is never long pleased. 

A careless man is unfit for an hostler. 

Note 2. 

Avoid rude sports ; an eye is soon lost, or a bone broken. 
As the drop of the bucket, and the dust of the balance. 
Not a word was uttered, nor a sign given. 
I despise not the doer, but the deed. 

Note 3. 

What is the difference between the old and the new method? 

The sixth and the tenth have a close resemblance. 

Is Paris on the right hand, or the left'? 

Does Peru join the Atlantic, or the Pacific ocean 1 

He was influenced both by a just and a generous principle. 

The book was read by the old and the young. 

I have both the large and the small grammar. 

Are both the north and the south line measured 1 

Are the north line and the south both measured 1 

Are both the north and the south lines measured *? 

Are both the north lines and the south measured 1 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. 265 

Note 4. 

Is the north and south line measured 1 

Are the two north and south lines both measured 1 

A great and good man looks beyond time. 

They made but a weak and ineffectual resistance. 

The Allegany and Monongahela rivers form the Ohio. 

I rejoice that there is an other and better world. 

Were God to raise up an other such man as Moses. 

The light and worthless kernels will float. - * 

Note 5. 

Cleon was an other sort of man. 
There is a species of animal called seal. 
Let us wait in patience and quietness. 
The contemplative mind delights in silence. 
Arithmetic is a branch of mathematics. 
You will never have an other such chance. 
I expected some such answer. 
And I persecuted this way unto death. 

Note 6. 

He is entitled to the appellation of gentleman. 
Cromwell assumed the title of Protector. 
Her father is honoured with the title of Earl. 
The chief magistrate is styled President. 
The highest title in the state is that of Governor. 

Note 7. 
He is a better writer than reader. 
He was an abler mathematician than linguist 
I should rather have an orange than an apple. 

Note 8. 

Tlie words (or those words) which are signs of complex ideas, are liable to 

be misunderstood. 
The carriages which were formerly in use, were very clumsy. 
The place is not mentioned by the geographers who wrote at that tim«. 

Note 9. 

Means are always necessary to the accomplishing of ends. 

By the seeing of the eye, and the hearing of the ear, learn wisdom* 

In the keeping of his commandments, there is great reward. 

For the revealing of a secret, there is no remedy. 

Have you no repugnance to the torturing of animals 1 

Note 10. 

By breaking the law, you dishonour the lawgiver. 
An argument so weak is not worth mentioning. 
In letting go our hope, we let all go. 
Avoid talking too much of your ancestors. 
The cuckoo keeps repeating her unvaried notes. 
Forbear boasting of what you can do. 

RULE II.— NOMINATIVES. 

He thaUis studious, will improve. 
They that seek wisdom, will be wise. 
She and 1 are of the same age. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

You are two or three years older than we. 

Are not John and thou cousins 1 

I can write as handsomely as thou. 

Nobody said so but he. 

Wlw dost thou think was there 1 

Who broke this slate 1 I. 

We are alone ; here's none but thou and I. 

Them that honour me, I will honour; and they that despise me, shall be 

lightly esteemed. — 1 Sam. ii. 30. 
He wlw in that instance was deceived, is a man of sound judgement. 

RULE III.— APPOSITION. 

The book is a present from my brother Richard, him that keeps the 

bookstore. 
I am going to see my friends in the country, them that we met at the 

ferry. 
This dress was made by Catharine, the milliner, her that we saw at 

work. 
Dennis, the gardener, he that gave me the tulips, has promised me 9 

piony. 

Resolve me, why the cottager and king, 
He whom sea-sever'd realms obey, and he 
Who steals his whole dominion from the waste > 
Repelling winter blasts with mud and straw, 
Disquieted alike, draw sigh for sigh. — Young. 

RULE IV.— ADJECTIVES. 

Note 1. 

Things of this sort are easily understood. 

Who broke those tongs 1 

Where did I drop these scissors 7 

Bring out those oats. 

Extinguish those embers. 

1 disregard these minutiae. 

That kind of injuries we need not fear. 

What was the height of that gallows which Haman erected 1 

Note 2. 

We rode about ten miles an hour. 

'Tis for a thousand pounds. 

How deep is the water 1 About six fathoms. 

The lot is twenty-five feet wide. 

I have bought eight loads of wood. 

Note 3. m 

Industry is one means of obtaining competence. 

Scholasticus sought opportunities to display his learning ; and, by tkii 

means, rendered himself ridiculous. 
Caled was remarkable for his modesty, docility, and ingenuity ; and, by 

these means, he acquired both knowledge and fame. 

Note 4. 

He chose the last of these three. 

Trissyllables are often accented on theirs* syllable. 

Which ace the two most remarkable isthmuses in the world % 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. 265 

Note 5. 

L The Scriptures are more valual 1 other writings. 

The Russian empire is more extensive than any other government in the 

world. 
Israel loved Joseph more than all his other children, because he was the son 
of his old age. 

Note 6. 

Of all ill habits idleness is the most incorrigible. 

Eve was the fairest of women. 

Hope is the most constant of all the passions. 

Note 7. 

That opinion is too general (or common) to be easily corrected. 

Virtue confers the greatest (or highest) dignity upon man. 

The tongue is like a race-horse : the less weight it carries, the faster k 

runs. 
A healthier (or more healthy) place cannot be found. 
The best and the wisest men often meet with discouragements. 

Note 8. 

He showed us an easier and more agreeable way. 
This was the -plainest and most convincing argument. 
Some of the wisest and most moderate of the senators. 
This is an ancient and honourable frecternity. 
There vice shall meet a fatal and irrevocable doom. 

Note 9. 

He is an industrious young man. 

She has an elegant new house. 

The first two classes have read. 

The two oldest sons have removed to the westward. 

England had not seen an other such king. 

Note 10. 

She reads well and writes neatly. 

He was extremely prodigal. 

They went, conformably to their engagement. 

He speaks very Jluently, and reasons justly. 

The deepest streams run the most silently. 

These appear to be finished the most neatly. 

He was scarcely gone, when you arrived. 

I am exceedingly sorry to hear of your misfortunes. 

Thf work was uncommonly well executed. 

This is not so large a cargo as the last. 

Thou knowest how good a horse mine is. 

I cannot think so meanly of him. 

He acted much more wisely than the others. 

Note 11. 

I bought those books at a very low price. 

Go and tell those boys to be still. 

I have several copies : thou art welcome to those two. 

Which of those three men is the most useful 1 

Note 12. 

Hope is as strong an incentive to action, as fear : that is the antic^tion of 
good, this of evil. 

23 



266 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The poor want some advantages which the rich enjoy ; but we should not 
therefore account these happy, and those miserable. 

Memory and forecast just returns engage, 

That pointing back to youth, this on to age. — Pope, 

Note 13. 

Let each of them be heard in his turn. 

On the Lord's day every one of us Christians keeps the sabbath. 

Is either of these men known 1 

No : neither of them lias any connexions here. 

Note 14. 

Did any of the company stop to assist you 1 
Here are six ; but none of them will answer. 

Note 15. 

Some crimes are thought deserving of death. 

Rudeness of speech is very unbecoming to [or in] a gentleman. 

To eat with unwashed hands was disgusting to a Jew. 

Leave then thy joys, unsuiting to such age — or, 
Leave then thy joys, not suiting such an age, 
To a fresh comer, and resign the stage. 

RULE V.— PRONOUNS. 

Every one must judge of his own feelings. 

Can any person, on his entrance into the world, be fully secure that he shall 
not be deceived 7 

He cannot see one in prosperity, without envying him, 

I gave him oats, but he would not eat them. 

Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put it on Jacob. 

Take up the tongs, and put them in their place. 

Let each esteem others better than himself. 

A person may make himself happy without riches. 

Every man should try to provide for himself. 

The mind of man should not be left without something on which to employ 
its energies. 

An idler is a watch that wants both hands, 

As useless if it goes, as when it stands. — Cowper. 

Note 1. 
Many words darken speech. 
These praises he then seemed inclined to retract. 
These people are all very ignorant. 
Asa's heart was perfect with the Lord. 
Who, in stead of going about doing good, are perpetually intent upon doing 

mischief. 
Whom ye delivered up, and denied in the presence of Pontius Pilate. 
W 7 hom, when they had washed her, they laid in an upper chamber. 
There are witnesses of the fact which I have mentioned. 
He is now sorry for what he said. 

The empress, approving these conditions, immediately ratified them. 
Though this incident appears improbable, yet I cannot doubt the author's 

veracity. 

Note 2. 
Thou art vay father's toother, ei*© would I reprove thee-^Qt, 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. 267 

You are my father's brother, else would I reprove you. 
Your weakness is excusable, but your wickedness is not — or, 
Thy weakness is excusable, but thy wickedness is not. 
Now, my son, I forgive thee, and freely pardon thy fault — or, 
Now, my son. I forgive you, and freely pardon your fault. 

You draw the inspiring breath of ancient song, 

Till nobly rises emulous your own — or, 

Thou drawst the inspiring breath of ancient song, 

Till nobly rises emulous thy own. 

Note 3. 

This is the horse which my father imported. 

Those are the birds which we call gregarious. 

He has two brothers, one of whom I am acquainted with. 

What was that creature which Job called leviathan 1 

Those who desire to be safe, should be careful to do that which is right. 

A butterfly, who thought himself an accomplished traveller, happened to 

light upon a bee-hive. 
There was a certain householder, iclw planted a vineyard. 

Note 4. 

He instructed and fed the crowds that surrounded him. 

The court, which has great influence upon the public manners, ought to be 
very exemplary. 

The wild tribes thai inhabit the wilderness, contemplate the ocean with as- 
tonishment, and gaze upon the starry heavens with delight. 

Note 5. 

Judas (which is now an other name for treachery) betrayed his master with 

a kiss. 
He alluded to Phalaris, — which is a name for all that is cruel. 

Note 6. 
He was the first that entered. 
He was the drollest fellow that I ever saw. 
This is the same man that we saw before. 
Who is she that comes clothed in a robe of green 1 
The wife and fortune that he gained, did not aid him. 
Men that are avaricious, never have enough. 
All that I have, is thine. 
Was it thou, or the wind, tlmt shut the doorl 
It was not I that shut it. 
The babe that was in the cradle, appeared to be healthy. 

Note 7. 

He is a man that knows what belongs to good manners, and that will not 

do a dishonourable act. 
The friend who was here, and who entertained us so much, will never be 

able to visit us again. 
The curiosities which he has brought home, and which we shall have the 

pleasure of seeing, are said to be very rare. 

Note 8. 

Observe them in the order in which they stand. 
We proceeded immediately to the place to which we were directed. 
My companion remained a week in the state in which I left him. 
The waj in ichich I do it, is this. 



268 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note 9. 

Remember the condition from which thou art rescued. 
I know of no rule by which it may be done. 

He drew up a petition, in which he too freely represented his own merits. 
The hour is hastening, in whkh whatever praise or censure I have acquired, 
will be remembered with equal indifference. 

Note 10. 

Many will acknowledge the excellence of religion, who cannot tell wherein 
that excellence consists. 

Every difference of opinion is not a difference of principle. — Jefferson. Bet- 
ter : Not every difference of opinion is a difference of principle. 

Next to the knowledge of God, this knowledge of ourselves seems most 
worthy of our endeavour. 

Note 11. 

17wu, who hast thus condemned the act, art thyself the man that commit- 
ted it. 

There is in simplicity a certain majesty, which is far above the quaintness of 
wit. 

T7tou, who art a party concerned, hast no right to judge. 

It is impossible for such men as those who are likely to get the appointment, 
ever to determine this question. 

There are, in the empire of China, millions of people, whose support is de- 
rived almost entirely from rice. 

Note 12. 

I had no idea but that the story was true. 

The post-boy is not so weary but that he can whistle. 

He had no intimation but that the men were honest. 

Note 13. 

Some men are too ignorant to be humble ; and without humility there can 
be no docility. 

Judas declared him innocent ; but innocent he could not be, had he in any 
respect deceived the disciples. 

Be accurate in all you say or do ; for accuracy is important in all the con- 
cerns of life. 

Every law supposes the transgressor to be wicked j and indeed he is so, if 
the law is just. 

RULE VI.— PRONOUNS 

In youth, the multitude eagerly pursue pleasure, as if it were flieir chief 

good. 
The council were not unanimous, and they separated without coming to any 

determination. 
The committee were divided in sentiment, and they referred the business to 

the general meeting. 
There happened to the army a very strange accident, which put them in 

great consternation. 
The enemy were not able to support the charge, and they dispersed and 

fled. 
The defendant's counsel had a difficult task imposed on them, 
The board of health publish their proceedings. 
I saw all the species thus delivered from their sorrows. 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX, 269 

Note 1. 

I saw the whole species thus delivered from its sorrows. 
This court is famous for the justice of its decisions. 
The convention then resolved itself 'into a committee of the whole. 
The crowd was so great that the judges with difficulty made their way 
through it. 

RULE VII.— PRONOUNS. 

Your levity and heedlessness, if they continue, will prevent all substantial 

improvement. 
Poverty and obscurity will oppress him only, who esteems them oppressive. 
Good sense and refined policy are obvious to few, because they cannot be 

discovered but by a train of reflection. 
Avoid haughtiness of behaviour, and affectation of manners : they imply a 

want of solid merit. 
If love and unity continue, they will make you partakers of one an other's 

joy- 
Suffer not jealousy and distrust to enter : they will destroy, like a canker, 

every germ of friendship. 
Hatred and animosity are inconsistent with Christian charity ; guard, there- 
fore, against the slightest indulgence of them. 
Every man is entitled to liberty of conscience, and freedom of opinion, if 
he does not pervert them to the injury of others. 

RULE VIII.— PRONOUNS. 

Neither Sarah, Ann, nor Jane, has performed her task. 

One or the other must relinquish his claim. 

A man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which will move only 

as it is moved. 
Rye or barley, when it is scorched, may supply the place of coffee. 
A man may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as read it in 

a description. 
Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of life; for it may 

be thy own lot. 

RULE IX.— VERBS. 

We were disappointed. 

She dares not oppose it. 

His pulse is too quick. 

Circumstances alter cases. 

He needs not trouble himself. 

Twenty-four pence are two shillings. 

On one side were beautiful meadows. 

He may pursue what studies he pleases. 

What has become of our cousins 1 

There were more impostors than one. 

What say his friends on this subject 1 

Thou knowest the urgency of the case. 

What avail good sentiments with a bad life! 

Have those books been sent to the school 1 

There are many occasions for the exercise of patience. 

W 7 hat sounds has each of the vowels 1 

There was a great number of spectators. 

There is an abundance of treatises on this easy science. 

While, ever and anon, there fall 
Huge heaps of hoary moulder'd walls — or, 
While, ever and anon, there falls 
A Jteap of h ">ary moulder'd walls. 
23* 



270 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

He that trusts in the Lord, will never be without a friend. 

Errors that originate in ignorance, are generally excusable. 

Be ye not as the horse, or as the mule, which has no understanding. 

Not one of the authors who mention this incident, is entitled to credit. 

The man and Woman that were present, being strangers to him, wondered 

at his conduct. 
There necessarily follow from thence these plain and unquestionable conse- 
quences. 

O thou, forever present in my way, 

Who all my motives and my toils surveyst — or, 

O thou, forever present in my way, 

Who dost my motives and my toils survey. 

Note 1. 

The derivation of these words is uncertain. 

FoUt years' interest was demanded. 

One added to nineteen, makes twenty. 

The increase of orphans renders the addition necessary. 

The road to virtue and happiness is open to all. 

The ship, with all her crew, was lost. 

A round of vain and foolish pursuits, delights some folks. 

Note 2. 

To obtain the praise of men, was their only object. 
To steal and then deny it, is a double sin. 
To copy and claim the writings of others, is plagiarism. 
To live soberly, righteously, and piously, is required of all men. 
That it is our duty to promote peace and harmony among men, admits of no 
dispute. 

Note 3. 

The reproofs of instruction are the way of life. 
A diphthong is two vowels joined in one syllable. 
So great an affliction to him were his wicked sons. 
What are the latitude and longitude of that island 1 
He churlishly said to me, ' Who are you V 

Note 4. 

1. Familiar Style. 

Was it thou that built that house 7 

That boy writes very elegantly. 

Coidd not thou write without blotting thy book 7 

Dost not thou think— or, DonH thou think, it will rain to-day? 

Does not — or, DonH your cousin, intend to visit you 1 

That boy has torn my book. 

Was it thou that spread the hay 1 

Was it James or thou that 1st him in 1 

He dares not say a word. 

Thou stood in my way and hindered me. 

2. Solemn Style. 

The Lord hath prepared his throne in the heavens; and his kingdom ruldh 

over all. — Psalm, ciii. 19. 
Thou answeredst them, O Lord our God : thou wast a God that forgave* 

thorn, though thou tookest vengeance of their inventions. 

*Forgavest (as in Psalm, xcix. 8.) appears to be wrong; because the rela- 
tive that and its antecedent God are of the third person, and not of the second. 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. 271 

Then thou speakest in vision to thy Holy One, and saidst — Psalm, 

lxxxix. 19. 
So then, it is not of him that willeth, nor of him that runneth, but of God 

that showeth mercy. — Rom. ix. 16. 

Note 5. 

New- York, Fiflhmonth 3d, 1823. 
Dear friend, 

I am sorry to hear of thy loss ; but / hope it may be retrieved. 
/ should be happy to render thee any assistance in my power. / shall 
call to see thee to-morrow morning. Accept assurances of my regard. 

A. B. 

New-York, May 3d, P. M. 1823. 
Dear sir, 

/ have just received the kind note you favoured me with this 
morning; and J cannot forbear to express my gratitude to you. On 
further information, / find / have not lost so much as / at first sup- 
posed ; and J believe I shall still be able to meet all my engagements. / 
should, however, be happy to see you. Accept, dear sir, my most cordial 
thanks. C. D. 

Will martial flames forever fire thy mind, 
And wilt thou never be to Heaven resign'd 1 

RULE X.— VERBS. 

The nobility were assured that he would not interpose. 

The committee have attended to their appointment. 

Mankind were not united by the bonds of civil society. 

The majority were disposed to adopt the measure. 

The peasantry go barefoot, and the middle sort make use of wooden 

shoes. 
All the world are spectators of your conduct. 
Blessed are the people that know the joyful sound. 

Note 1. 

The church has no power to inflict corporal punishments. 
The fleet was seen sailing up the channel. 
The meeting has established several salutary regulations. 
The regiment consists of a thousand men. 
A detachment of two hundred men was immediately sent. 
Every auditory takes this in good part. 
In this business, the house of commons icas of no weight. 
Is the senate considered as a separate body 1 
There is a flock of birds. 

No society is chargeable with the disapproved conduct of particular mem- 
bers. 

RULE XL—VERBS. 

Temperance and exercise preserve health. 

Time and tide wait for no man. 

My love and affection towards thee remain unaltered. 

Wealth, honour, and happiness, forsaJce the indolent. 

My flesh and my heart fail 

In all his works, there are sprightliness and vigour. 

Elizabeth's meekness and humility were extraordinary. 

In unity consist the security and welfare of every society. 



mim 



272 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

High pleasures and luxurious living beget satiety. 

Much do human pride and folly require correction. 

Our conversation and intercourse with the world are, in several respects, an 
education for vice. 

Occasional release from toil, and indulgence of ease, are what nature de- 
mands, and virtue allows. 

What generosity, and what humanity, were then displayed! 

What thou desir'st, 
And what thou fearest, alike destroy all hope. 

Note 1. 
Wisdom, and not wealth, procures esteem. 
Prudence, and not pomp, is the basis of his fame. 
Not fear, but labour has overcome him. 
The decency, and not the abstinence, makes the difference. 
Not her beauty, but her talents attract attention. 
It is her talents, and not her beauty, that attract attention. 
It is her beauty, and not her talents, tliat attracts attention. 

Note 2. 
His constitution, as well as his fortune, requires care. 
Their religion, as well as their manners, was ridiculed. 
Every one, but thou, had been legally discharged. 
The buyer, as well as the seller, renders himself liable. 
All songsters, save the hooting owl, were mute. 
None, but thou, O mighty prince! can avert the blow. 
Nothing, but frivolous amusements, pleases the indolent. 
Caesar, as well as Cicero, was admired for his eloquence. 

Note 3. 

Each day, and each hour, brings its portion of duty. 

Every house, and even every cottage, was plundered. 

Every thought, every word, and every action, will be brought into judge- 
ment, whether it be good or evil. 

The time will come, when no oppressor, no unjust man, will be able to 
screen himself from punishment. 

No bandit fierce, no tyrant mad with pride, 
No cavern'd hermit, rests self-satisfied. — Pope. 

Note 4. 

In this affair, perseverance and dexterity were requisite. 

Town and country are equally agreeable to me. 

Sobriety and humility lead to honour. 

The king, the lords, and the commons, compose the British parliament. 

The man and his whole family are dead. 

A small house and a trifling annuity are still granted him. 

Note 5. 
To profess, and to possess, are very different things. 
To do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with God, are duties of 

universal obligation. 
To be round or square, to be solid or fluid, to be large or small, and to be 

moved swiftly or slowly, are all equally alien from the nature of thought 

RULE XII.— VERBS. 

Neither imprudence, credulity, nor vanity, has ever been imputed to him, 
What the heart or the imagination dictates^ flows readily. 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. 273 

Neither authority nor analogy supports such an opinion. 

Either ability or inclination was wanting. 

Redundant grass or heath affords abundance to their cattle. 

The returns of kindness are sweet ; and there is neither honour, nor virtue, 

nor utility, in repelling them. 
The sense or drift of a proposition, often depends upon a single letter. 

Note 1. 

Neither he nor you were there. 
Either the boys or I was in fault. 
Neither he nor I intend to be present. 
Neither the captain nor the sailors were saved. 

Whether one person or more were concerned in the business, does not yet 
appear. 

Note 2. 

Are they, or am I, expected to be there 1 

Neither is he, nor am I, capable of it. 

Either he has been imprudent, or his associates have been vindictive. 

Neither were their riches, nor was their influence great. 

Note 3. 

My father and I were riding out. 

The premiums were given to George and me. 

Jane and I are invited. 

They ought to invite my sister and me. 

We dreamed a dream in one night, he and I. 

Note 4. 

To practise tale-bearing, or even to countenance it, is great injustice. 
To reveal secrets, or to betray one's friends, is contemptible perfidy. 

RULE XIII.— VERBS. 

Doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and go into the mountains, and seek 
that which is gone astray 1 

Did he not tell thee his fault, and entreat thee to forgive him 1 

If he understands the business, and attends to it, wherein is he de- 
ficient 1 

The day is approaching, and is hastening upon us, in which we must give 
an account of our stewardship. 

If thou dost not turn unto the Lord, but dost forget him who remembered 
thee in thy distress, great will be thy condemnation— or, better: If thou 
turn not unto the Lord, but forget him who remembered thee in thy dis- 
tress, great will be thy condemnation. 

There are a few, who have kept their integrity to the Lord, and who prefer 
his truth to all other enjoyments. 

This report was current yesterday, and it agrees with what we heard 
before. 

Virtue is generally praised, and it would he generally practised also, if men 
were wise. 

Note 1. 

He would luave gone with us, if we had invited him. 
They have chosen the part of honour and virtue. 
He soon began to be weary of having nothing to do. 
Somebody has broken my slate. 
I saw him when he did it. 



274 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Note 2. 



He had entered into the conspiracy. 

The American planters raise cotton and rice. 

The report is founded on truth. 

I entered the room and sat down. 

Go and lie down, my son. 

With such books, it will always be difficult to teach children to read, 

RULE XIV.— PARTICIPLES. 

Note 1. 1 

} 



By observing truth, you will command respect. 

I could not, for my heart, forbear pitying him. 

I heard them discussing this subject. 

By consulting the best authors, he became learned. 

Here are rules, by observing which, you may avoid error. 

Note 2. 

Their consent was necessary for the raising of any supplies. 
Thus the saving ofn. great nation devolved on a husbandman. 
It is an overvaluing of ourselves, to decide upon every thing. 
The teacher does not allow any calling of ill names. 
That burning of the capitol was a wanton outrage. 
May nothing hinder our receiving of so great a good. 
My admitting of the fact will not affect the argument. 
Cain's killing of his brother originated in envy. 

Note 3. 

Csesar carried off the treasures, which his opponent had neglected to take 

with him. 
It is dangerous to play with edge tools. 
I intend to return in a few days. 

To suffer needlessly — or, Needless suffering is never a duty. 
Nor is it wise to complain. 

I well remember to have told you so — or, that I told you so. 
The doing of good — or, To do good, is a Christian's vocation. 
Piety is a constant endeavour to live to God. It is an earnest desire to do his 

will, and not our own. 

Note 4. 

There is no harm in women's knowing about these things. 
They did not give notice of the pupiCs leaving. 
Tne sun, darting his beams through my window, awoke me. 
The maturity of the sago tree is known by the leaves 1 being covered with a 
delicate white powder. 

Note 5. 
Sailing up the river, you may see the whole town. 
Being conscious of guilt, men tremble at death — or, Consciousness of guilt 

renders death terrible. 
By yielding to temptation, we sacrifice our peace. 
In loving our enemies, we shed no man's blood. 
By teaching the young, we prepare them for usefulness. 

Note 6. 
A nail well driven will support a great weight. 
See here a hundred sentences stolen from my work. 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. 2TS 

I found the water entirely frozen, and the pitcher broken 
Being forsaken by my friends, I had no other resource. 

Note 7. 
Till by barbarian deluges overflowed. 
Like the lustre of diamonds set in gold. 
A beam etherial, sullied and absorbed. 
With powerless wings around them wrapped. 
Error learned frem preaching, is held as sacred truth. 

RULE XV.— ADVERBS. 

Note 1. 
The work will never be completed. 
We should always prefer our duty to our pleasure. 
It is impossible to be continually at work. 
He behaved impertinently to his master. 
The heavenly bodies are perpetually in motion. 
He found her not only busy, but even pleased and happv 

Note 2. 

Give him an early and decisive answer. 

When a substantive is put absolute. 

Such expressions sound harsh. 

Such events are of rare (or unfrequent) occurrence. 

Velvet feels very smooth. 

Note 3. 
Bring him hither to me. 
I shall go thither again in a few days. 
Whither are they all riding in so great haste 1 

Note 4. 

Hence it appears that the statement is incorrect. 
Thence arose the misunderstanding. 
Do you know whence it proceeds 1 

Note 5. 
You see that not many are required. 
I knew that they had heard of his misfortunes. 
He remarked, that time was valuable. 

Note 6. 

Know now, whether this is thy son's coat or not. 
Whether he is in fault or not, I cannot tell. 
I will ascertain whether it is so or not. 

Note 7. 

I will by no means entertain a spy. 

Nobody ever invented or discovered any thing, in any way to be compared 

with this. 
Be honest, and take no shape or semblance of disguise, 
I did not like either his temper or his principles. 
Nothing ever can justify ingratitude. 

RULE XVI.— CONJUNCTIONS. 

Note 1. 
He has made alterations in the work, and additions to it. 
He is more bold than his companion, but not so wise. 
Sincerity is as valuable as krwwUdgt, and even more so, 



276 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I always have been, and I always shall be, of this opinion. 

What is now kept secret, shall be hereafter displayed and seen in the clear- 
est light. 

We pervert the noble faculty of speech, when we use it to defame or to dis- 
quiet our neighbours. 

Be more anxious to acquire knowledge, than to show it. 

The court of chancery frequently mitigates and disarms the common 
law. 

Note 2. 

We were apprehensive that some accident had happened. 

I do not deny that he has merit. 

Are you afraid that he will forget you 1 

These paths and bow'rs, doubt not that our joint hands 
Will keep from wilderness. 

Note 3. 

It was no other than his own father. 

Have you no further proof than this 1 

I expected something more than this. 

He no sooner retires than his heart burns with devotion. 

Such literary filching is nothing else than robbery. 

Note 4. 

Neither despise nor oppose what you do not understand. 

He would neither do it himself nor let me do it. 

The majesty of good things is such, that the confines of them are rer- 
erend. 

Whether he intends to do so or not, I cannot tell. 

Send me such articles only, as are adapted to this market. 

So far as I am able to judge, the book is w«U written. 

No errors are so trivial as not to deserve correction. 

It will neither improve the mind, nor delight the fancy. 

The one is as deserving as the other. 

There is no condition so secure that it cannot admit of change. 

Do you think this is as good as that 1 

The relations are so obscure that they require much thought. 

None is so fierce as to dare stir him up. 

There was no man so sanguine as not to apprehend some ill conse- 
quence. 

I must be so candid as to own that I do not understand it. 

The book is not so well printed as it ought to be. 

As still he sat as those who wait, 
Till judgement speak the doom of fate. 

RULE XVII.— PREPOSITIONS. 
Note 1. 
She finds a difficulty in fixing her mind. 
This affair did not fall under his cognizance. 
He was accused of betraying his trust. 
Th«*e was no water, and he died of thirst. 
I hicve no occasion for his services. 
Yo i may safely confide in him. 
I ( ntertain no prejudice against him. 
You may rely on what I tell you. 
Virtue and vice differ widely from each other. 



KL'Y TO FALSE SYNTAX. 277 

This remark is founded on truth. 
After many toils, we arrived at our journey's end. 
I will tell you a story very different,/ro?7i that. 
Their conduct is agreeable to their profession. 
Excessive pleasures pass from satiety into disgust. 
I turned in disgust from the spectacle. 
They are gone into the meadow. 
Let this be divided among the three. 
The shells were broken into pieces. 
The deception has passed with every one. 
They never quarrel with each other. 

Through every difficulty — or, Amidst all difficulties, he persevered. 
Let us go up stairs. 

I was in London, when this happened. 
We were detained at home, and disappointed of our walk. 
This originated in mistake. 

The Bridewell is situated on the west of the City-Hall, and it has no com- 
munication with the other buildings. 
I am disappointed in the work ; it is very inferior to what I expected. 

Note 2. 

Be worthy of me, as I am worthy o/*you. 
They cannot but be unworthy of the care of others. 
Thou shalt have no portion on this side of the river. 
Sestos and Abydos were exactly opposite to each other. 
Ovid was banished from Rome by his patron Augustus. 

RULE XIX.— POSSESSIVES. 

Note 1. 

Marts chief good is an upright mind. 

I will not destroy the city for tens sake. 

Moses's rod was turned into a serpent. 

They are wolves in sheeps' clothing. 

The tree is known by its fruit. 

The privilege is not theirs, any more than it is yours. 

Yet he was gentle as soft summer airs, 

Had grace for others' sins, but none for theirs. — Cowper. 

Note 2. 

There is but little difference between the Earth) *s and Venus T s diameter. 

This hat is John's, or James's. 

The store is opposite to Mom's and Company's. 

This palace had been the grand Sultan Mahomet's. 

This was the Apostle Paul's advice. 

Were Cain's occupation and Abel's the same 1 

Were Cain's and Abel's occupation the same 1 

Were Cain and Abel's occupations the samel 

Were Cain's and Abel's parents the same 1 

Were Cain's parents and AbeVs the same 7 

Was Cain and Abel's father there 7 

Were Cain and Abel's parents there 1 

Thy Maker's will has placed thee hexe g 
A Maker wise and good. 

Note 3. 

The government of the world is not left to chance 
He was heir to the son of Louis the Sixteenth. 

24 



278 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The throne we honour, is the people's choice. 
We met at the house of my brother's partner. 
An account of the proceedings of Alexander } s court. 

Here is a copy of the Constitution of the Teachers' Society in the city of 
New- York. 

Note 4. 

Their health perhaps may be pretty well secured. 
We all have talents committed to our charge. 
For your sake forgave I it, in the sight of Christ 
We are, for our part, well satisfied. 
The pious cheerfully submit to their lot. 
Fools think it not worth their while to be wise. 

Note 5. 

A rewarded the boy for studying so diligently. 
Have you a rule for thus parsing the participle 1 
He errs in giving the word a double construction. 
By offending others, we expose ourselves. 
They deserve our thanks for quickly relieving us. 

RULE XX.— OBJECTIVES. 

T7iee only have I cnosen. 

Whom shall we send on this errand 1 

My father allowed my brother and me to accompany him. 

Him that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. 

Whom should I meet but my old friend ! 

How long will it take you to do it % 

He accosts whomever he meets. 

Wliomsoever the court favours, is safe. 

Them that honour me, I will honour. 

Whom do you think I saw the other day % 

Note 1. 

The ambitious are always seeking to aggrandize themselves, 

I must premise three circumstances. 

This society does not allow personal reflections. 

False accusation cannot diminish real merit. 

His servants ye are whom ye obey. 

Note 2. 

Good keeping fattens the herd. 

We endeavoured to reconcile the parties. 

Being weary, he sat down. 

Go, fee away into the land of Judah. 

The popular lords did not fail to enlarge on the subject 

Note 3. 
The benefit of their recantation was refused them. 
Temporal riches are not promised to believers. 
Several beautiful pictures were shown us. 
But, unfortunately, the favour was denied me. 
A high compliment was paid you. 
The question has never been asked me. 

RULE XXL— SAME CASES, 

We thought it was thou. 

I would act the- same part, if I were he. 



i I 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. 279 



It could not have been she. 

It is not i, that he is angry with. 

They believed it to be me. 

It was thought to be he. 

If it had been she, she would have told us. 

We know it to be them. 

Who do you think it is? 

Whom do you suppose it to be 1 

We did not know who they were. 

Thou art he whom they described. 

Impossible ! it can't be /. 

Who did he think you were 1 

Who say ye that Iaml 

RULE XXII.— OBJECTIVES. 

Let that remain a secret between you and me. 

I lent the book to some one, I know not [to] whom. 

Let no quarrel occur among you. 

Whom did he inquire for ? Thee. 

From him that is needy, turn not away. 

We are all accountable, each for his own acts. 

Does that boy know whom he is speaking to 1 

I bestow my favours on whomsoever I will. 

RULE XXIII.— INFINITIVES. 

Please to excuse my son's absence. 
Cause every man to go out from me. 
Forbid them to enter the garden. 
Do you not perceive it to move'? 
Allow others to discover your merit. 
He was seen to go in at that gate. 
Permit me to pass this way. 

RULE XXIV.— INFINITIVES. 

I felt a chilling sensation creep over me. 

I have -heard him mention the subject. 

Bid the boys come in immediately. 

I dare say he has not got home yet. 

Let no rash promise be made. 

We sometimes see bad men honoured. 

A good reader will make himself distinctly heard. 

RULE XXV.— NOM. ABSOLUTE. 

I being young, they deceived me. 

They refusing to comply, I withdrew. 

Thou being present, he would not tell what he knew. 

The child is lost; and J, whither shall I gol 

O happy we ! surrounded thus with blessings ! 

" Thou too! Brutus, my son!" cried Caesar overcome. 

But he, the chieftain of them all, 

His sword hangs rusting on the wall. — W. Scott, 

She quick relapsing to her former state. 
With boding fears approach the serving train. 

There all thy gifts and graces we display, 
TTiou, only thou, directing all our way. — Pope. 



280 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



RULE XXVI.— SUBJUNCTIVES. 

First Clause. — Subjunctive Present. 

He will maintain his cause, though he lose his estate. 

They will fine thee, unless thou offer an excuse. 

I shall walk out in the afternoon, unless it rain. 

Let him take heed lest he fall. 

On condition that he come, I consent to stay. 

If he be but discreet, he will succeed. 

Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob. 

If thou cast me off, I shall be miserable. 

Send them to me, if thou please. 

Watch the door of thy lips, lest thou utter folly. 

Second Clause.- — Subjunctive Imperfect. 

If I were to write, he would not regard it. 

If thou felt as I do, we should soon decide. 

Though thou shed thy blood in the cause, it would but prove thee sincerely 

a fool. 
If thou loved him, there would be more evidence of it. 
I believed, whatever were the issue, all would be well. 
If love were never feigned, it would appear to be scarce. 
There fell from his eyes, as it were scales. 
If he were an impostor, he must have been detected. 
Were death denied, all men would wish to die. 

that there were yet a day to redress thy wrongs ! 
Though thou wert huge as Atlas, thy efforts would be vain. 

Last Clause.. — Indicative Mood. 

■ 
Though he seems to be artless, he has deceived us. 
If he thinks as he speaks, he may safely be trusted. 
Though this event is strange, it certainly did happen. 
If thou lovest tranquillity of mind, seek it not abroad. 
If seasons of idleness are dangerous, what must a continued habit of it 

prove 1 
Though he was a son, yet learned he obedience by the things which he 

suffered. 

1 knew thou wast not slow to hear. 

Note 1. 

The work was finished last week. 

He has been out of employment this fortnight. 

This mode of expression was formerly in use. 

I shall be much obliged to him if he will attend to it. 

I will pay the vows which my lips uttered when I was in trouble. 

I have compassion on the multitude, because they have continued with mo 
now three days. 

I thought, by the accent, that he was speaking to his child. 

And he that had been dead, sat up and began to speak. 

Thou hast borne, and hast had patience, and for my name's sake hast la- 
boured, and hast not fainted. 

Ye will not come unto me that ye may have life — or, Ye would not come 
unto me that ye might have life. 

At the end of this quarter, I shall have been at school two years. 

We have done no more than it was our duty to do. 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. 281 

Note % 

We expected that he would arrive last night. 

Our friends intended to meet us. 

We hoped to see you. 

He would not have been allowed to enter. 

Note 3. 

The doctor affirmed, that fever always produces thirst. 
The ancients asserted, that virtue is its own reward. 

PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES CORRECTED, 
LESSON I. 

There is a spirit in man ; and the inspiration of the Almighty giveth him 
understanding. 

My people do not consider. 

I have never heard whom they invited. 

Then hasten thy return ; for, thou away, 
Nor lustre has the sun, nor joy the day. 

I am as well as when you were here. 

That elderly man, him that came in late, I supposed to be the superin- 
tendent. 

All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers ; but their 
follies and vices are innumerable. 

It must indeed be confessed, that a lampoon or a satire does not carry in it 
robbery or murder. 

There were more persons than one engaged in this affair. 

A man who lacks ceremony, has need of great merit. 

A wise man avoids the showing of any excellence in trifles. Better— -for" 
bears to show — or, is careful not to show, <&c. 

The first and most important female quality is sweetness of temper. 

We choose rather to lead than to follow. 

Ignorance is the mother of fear, as well as of admiration. 

He must fear many, whom many fear. 

Every one partakes of honour bestowed on the worthy. 

The king and the queen were not at all deceived. — [Note &th t Rule xL] 

Were there no difference, there would be no choice. 

I would rather have been informed. 

Must thou return this evening 7 

Life and death are in the power of the tongue. 

I saw a person that I took to be her. 

Let him be icho he may, I shall not stop. 

This is certainly a useful invention. 

That such a spirit as thou does not understand me. 

' It is no more than justice,' quoth the farmer. 

LESSON II. 

Great improvements have been made. 
What I have heard, is undoubtedly true. 
The nation is torn by feuds which threaten its ruin. 
The account of these transactions was incorrect. 
Godliness with contentment is great gain. 
The number of sufferers has not been ascertained. 
There is one or more of them yet in confinement. 
They have chosen the wisest part. 
He spent his whole life in doing good. 
They scarcely know that temperance is a virtue. 
I am afraid that I have laboured in vain. 

24* 



282 - ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Mischief on itself doth back recoil. 

This construction sounds rather harsh. 

What is the cause of the leaves 1 curling * 

Was it tlwu, that made the noise 1 

Let thy flock clothe the naked. 

Wisdom and knowledge are granted unto thee. 

His conduct was surprisingly strange. 

This woman taught my brother and me to read. 

Let your promises be such as you can perform. 

We shall sell them in the state in which they now are. 

We may, however, add this observation. 

This came into fashion when I was young. 

I did not use the leaves, but the root of the plant. 

We have used every means in our power. 

Pass ye away, ye inhabitants of Saphir — or, Pass away, thou inhabitant of 

Saphir. 
Give every syllable and every letter its proper sound, 

LESSON III. 

To know exactly how much mischief may be ventured upon with impu- 
nity, is knowledge enough for some folks. 

Every leaf and every twig teems with life. 

I rejoiced at this intelligence. 

At this stage of advancement, the pupil finds little difficulty in understand- 
ing the passive and the neuter verbs. 

I was afraid that I sliould lose the parcel. 

Which of all these patterns is the prettiest ? 

They that [or who] despise instruction, shall not be wise. 

Both thou and thy advisers have mistaken your interest. 

An idle soul shall sufFer hunger. 

The lips of knowledge are a precious jewel. 

My cousin and I are requested to attend. 

/ can only say, that such is my belief. 

This is different from the conscience' being made to feel. 

Here is ground for their leaving of the world with peace — or, (better,) 
Here is ground for leaving the world with peace. 

Whither are you all running so fast 7 

Man is the noblest work of creation. 

Of all crimes wilful murder is the most atrocious. 

The tribes that I visited are partially civilized. 

Heroce I conclude, they are in error. 

The girls' books are neater than the boys'. 

I intended to transcribe it. 

Shall a character made up of the very worst passions, pass under the name 
of gentleman ? 

Rhoda ran in, and told that Peter stood before the gate. 

What are latitude and longitude ^ 

Cicero was more eloquent than any other Roman — or, Cicero was the most 
eloquent of the Romans. 

Who dares apologize for Pizarro 1 — which is but another name for rapacity. 

LESSON IV. 

Tell me whether you will do it or not. 
After the straitest [or strictest] sect, I lived a Pharisee. 
We have no more than five loaves and two fishes. 
I know not who it was that did it.. 

Doubt not, little though there be, 
Tliat I'll cast a crumb to thee. 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. 283 

This rule is the best that can be given. 

I have never seen any other way. . 

These are poor amends for the men and treasures that we have lost. 

Dost thou know those boys 7 

This is a part of the estate of my uncle's father. 

Many people never learn to speak correctly. 

Some people are rash, and others timid : these apprehend too much, those too 

little. 
Is it lawful for us to give tribute to Caesar or not ? 
It was not worth while to preserve any permanent enmity. 
I no sooner saw my face in it, than I was startled at the shortness of it 
Every person is answerable for his own conduct. 
They are men that scorn a mean action, and that will exert themselves to 

serve you. 
I do not recollect ever to have paid it — the paying of it — the payment of it — 

or, that I ever paid it. 
The stoics taught that all crimes are eqi.ai. 
Every one of these theories is now exploded. 
Any of these four will answer. 
There is no situation in which he would be happy. 
The boy that you thought so clever, has been detected in stealing. 
I will meet thee there, if thou please. 
He is not so sick, but that he can laugh. 
These clothes do not ft me. 
The audience were all very attentive. 

Wert thou some star, which from the ruin'd roof 
Qfshatin Olympus by mischance did fall I 

LESSON V. 

Was the master, or were many of the scholars, in the room 1 

His father and mother's consent was asked. 

Who is he supposed to be 1 

He is a venerable old man. 

It was then my purpose to visit Sicily. 

It is only to the learner, and him that is in doubt, that this assistance is rec- 
ommended. 

There is not the least hope of his recovery. 

Anger and impatience are always unreasonable. 

In his letters, there is not only correctness, but elegance. 

Opportunity to do good is the highest preferment that a noble mind de- 
sires. 

The year in which he died is not mentioned. 

Had I known it, I should not have gone. 

Was it thou, that spoke to me 7 

The house is pleasantly situated. 

He did it as privately as he possibly could. 

To subdue our passions — The subduing of our passions — The subjuga- 
tion of our passions — or, That we subdue our passions, is the noblest of 
conquests. 

James is more diligent than thou. 

Words interwoven with sighs found out their way. 

He appears to be excessively diffident. 

The number of our days is with thee. 

As a father pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth them that fear him. 

The circumstances of this case, are different. 

Well for us, if some other such men should rise ! 

A man that is you ag in years, may be old in hours, if he lose no time. 



284 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The chief captain, fearing that Paul would be pulled into pieces by them, 
commanded the soldiers to go down, and to take him by force from among 
them. 

Nay, weep not, gentle Eros ; there are left us 
Ourselves to end ourselves. 

CORRECTIONS UNDER THE GENERAL RULE. 

Are there, then, more true religions than one 1 

The laws of Lycurgus but substituted insensibility for enjoyment. 

Rain is seldom or never seen at Lima. 

The young bird raising its open mouth for food, exhibits a natural indication 
of corporeal want. 

There is much truth in Ascham's observation. 

Adopting the doctrine in which he had been taught — or, Adopting the doc- 
trine which had been taught 1dm. 

This library contained more than Jive hundred thousand volumes. 

The Coptic Alphabet was one of the latest that were formed. 

There are many evidences of men's proneness to vice. 

To perceive nothing, and not to perceive, are the same — or, To perceive 
nothing, is the same as not to perceive. 

The king of France or of England, was to be the umpire. 

He may be said to have saved the life of a citizen; and, consequently, he is 
entitled [or, to be entitled] to the reward. 

The men had made inquiry for Simon's house, and were standing before the 
gate. 

Give no more trouble than you cannot possibly help. 

That the art of printing was then unknown, was a circumstance in some re- 
spects favourable to the freedom of the pen. 

An other passion which the present age is apt to run into, is a desire to make 
children learn all things. 

It requires few talents to which most men are not born, or which, at least, 
they may not acquire. 

Nor was Philip wanting in his endeavours to corrupt Demosthenes, as he 
had corrupted most of the leading men in Greece. 

The Greeks, fearing to be surrounded, wheeled about and halted, with the 
river behind them. 

Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon the supplying of our wants ; and 
riches, upon the enjoying of our superfluities. 

That brother should not war with brother, 
Nor one despise and grieve an other. 

Such is the refuge of our youth and age ; 
At first from hope, at last from vacancy — or, 

Such is the refuge of our youth and age ; 
Of that from hope, of this from vacancy. 

Triumphant Sylla ! couldst thou then divine, 
By ought but Romans Rome should thus be laid 1 



END OF THE FIRST KEY. 



APPENDIX I. 

(ORTHOGRAPHY.) 

OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 

Obs. 1. — The Names of the letters, as now commonly spoken and writ- 
ten, are mostly framed with reference to their powers. Yet is there no 
letter of which the name is always identical with its power ; for A, E, I, O, 
and U, are the only letters which can name themselves, and all these have 
other sounds than those which their names express. Letters, like all other 
things, must be learned and spoken of by their names, nor can they be 
spoken of otherwise ; yet, as the simple characters are better known and 
more easily exhibited than their written names, the former are often substi- 
tuted for the latter, and are read as the words for which they are assumed. 
Hence the orthography of these words has hitherto been left too much to 
mere fancy or caprice ; so that many who think themselves well educated, 
would be puzzled to name on paper these simple elements of all learning. 
Nay, there can be found a hundred men who can write the names of 
the letters in Hebrew or in Greek, for one who can do it properly in 
English. 

Obs. 2. — The names of the letters are words of a very peculiar kind ; be- 
ing nouns that are at once both proper and common. For, in respect to 
rank, character, and design, each letter is a thing strictly individual and 
identical ; yet, in an other respect, it is a comprehensive sort, embracing in- 
dividuals both various and numberless. The name of a letter, therefore, 
should always be written with a capital, as a proper noun ; and should form 
the plural regularly, as an ordinary appellative. Thus : (if we adopt the 
names now most generally used in English schools:) A, Aes; Bee, Bees; 
Cee, Cees ; Dee, Dees; E, Ees ; Eff, Effs; Gee, Gees; Aitch, Aitches ; I, 
Ies; Jay, Jays; Kay, Kays; Ell, Ells; Em, Ems; En, Ens; O, Oes , 
Pee, Pees; Kue, Kues ; Ar, Ars ; Ess, Esses; Tee, Tees; U, Ties; Vee, 
Vees; Double-u, Double-ues ; Ex, Exes; Wy, Wies ; Zee, Zees. 

Obs. 3. — The terms long and short, which are often used to denote certain 
vowel sounds, being also used, with a different import, to distinguish the 
quantity of syllables, are frequently misunderstood : for which reason we 
have substituted for them the terms open and close — the former, to denote 
the sound usually given to a vowel when it forms or ends an accented 
syllable ; as, ba, be, bi, bo, bu, by — the latter, to denote the sound which 
the vowel commonly takes when closed by a consonant; as, ab, eb, ib } 
ob, ub. 



The vowel A has four* sounds properly its own: 

1. The English, open, or long a; as in fame, favour, efficacious. 

2. The French, close, or short a ; as in bat, banner, balance. 

3. The Italian, or middle a; as in far, father, aha, comma, scoria, sofa. 

4. The Dutch, or broad a ; as in wall, warm, water. 

* Some writers distinguish from the first of these sounds the grave sound 
of a, heard in care, fair, there, &c. But Walker teaches no difference. 



286 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH A. 

The only proper diphthong in which a is put first, is the word ay, meaning 
yes ; in which a has its middle sound, and y that of open e. 

Aa, when pronounced as an improper diphthong, takes the sound of close 
a; as in Balaam, Canaan, Isaac. 

M, a Latin improper diphthong, generally has the sound of open e ; as 
in Ccesar, cenigma, pcean ; sometimes that of close e ; as in aphceresis, 
dicer esis, et ccetera. Some authors reject the a, and write Cesar, enig- 
ma, &c. 

Ai, an improper diphthong, generally has the sound of open a; as in vail, 
sail, vain. In a final unaccented syllable, it sometimes preserves the first 
sound of a, as in chilblain, mortmain; but oftener takes the sound of close i; 
as in certain, curtain, mountain, villain : in said, saith, again, and against, 
that of close e; and in the name Britain, that of close u. 

Ao, an improper diphthong, occurs in the word gaol ; now frequently 
written, as it is pronounced, jail; and in the adjective extraordinary, and its 
derivatives, in which, according to Walker, the a is silent. 

Au, an improper diphthong, is generally sounded like broad a; as in 
cause, caught. Before n and an other consonant, it has the sound of middle 
a; as in aunt,Jlaunt, launch, laundry. Gauge is pronounced gage. 

Aw, an improper diphthong, is always sounded like broad a; as in draw, 
drawn, drawl. 

Ay, an improper diphthong, like ai, has the sound of open a; as in day, 
, pay, delay: in sayst and says, that of close e. 

TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH A. 

Awe is sounded au, like broad a. Aye, an adverb signifying always, has 
the sound of open a only, being different, both in sound and spelling, from 
the adverb ay, yes, with which it is often carelessly confounded. 

B 

The consonant B has but one sound ; as in boy, robber, cub. 

B is silent before t or after m in the same syllable; as in debt, 
debtor, dumb, lamb. It is heard in subtile, fine, but not in subtle^ 
cunning. 

c 

The consonant C has two sounds ; the one hard like that of k, the other 
soft, or rather hissing, like that of s. 

C before a, o, u, I, r, t, or when it ends a syllable, is generally hard like 
k; as in can, come, curb, clay, crab, act, action, accent, Jlaccid. 

C before e, i, or y, is always soft like s ; as in cent, civil, decency, acid. 

In a few words c takes the fiat sound of s, like that of z; as in discern, 
suffice, sacrifice, sice. 

C before ea, ia, ie, io, or eou, when the accent precedes, sounds like sh; as 
in ocean, special, species, gracious, cetaceous. 

C is silent in czar, czarina, victuals, indict, muscle, corpuscle. 

Ch is generally sounded like tch : as in church, chance, child. But in words 
derived from the learned languages, it has the sound of A: : asm character, 
scheme, catechise, chorus, chyle, patriarch, drachma, magna charta : except in 
chart, charter, charity. Ch, in words derived from the French, takes the 
sound of sh; as in chaise, machine. 

Arch, before a vowel, is pronounced ark ; as in archives, archangel, archi- 
pelago : except in arched, archer, archery, archenemy. Before a consonant, 
it is pronounced artch ; as in archbishop, archduke. 

Ch is silent in schedule, schism, yatch i drachm,. 



APPENDIX I. — LETTERS. 287 

U 

The general sound of the consonant D, is heard in dog, eddy, did. 

D, in the termination ed, preceded by a sharp consonant, takes the sound 
of t, when the e is suppressed: as in faced, stuffed, cracked, tripped, passed; 
pronounced, faste, stuff. , cract, tript, past. 

D before ia, ie, io, or eou, when the accent precedes, generally sounds 
like j; as in Indian, soldier, tedious, liideous. So in verdure, arduous, edu- 
cation. 

E 

The vowel E has three sounds properly its own : 

1. The open or long; as in me, mere, menial, melodious. 

2. The close or short ; as in men, merry, ebony. 

3. The obscure; as in open, garden, shovel, able. This third sound is 
scarcely perceptible, and is barely sufficient to articulate the consonant and 
form a syllable. 

E final is mute, and belongs to the syllable formed by the preceding vowel 
or diphthong ; as in age, eve, ice, ore. Except — 1. In the words, be, he, me, we, 
she, and the, in which it has the open sound. 2. In Greek and Latin words, 
in which it has its open sound, and forms a distinct syllable; as in Penel- 
ope, Pasiplme, Cyanee, Gargaphie , Arsinoe, apostrophe, catastrophe, simile, ex- 
tempore, epitome. 3. In the terminations ere, gre, tre, in which it has the 
sound of close u; as in acre, meagre, centre. 

Mute e, after a single consonant, generally preserves the open or long 
sound of the preceding vowel ; as in cane, here, pine, cone, tune, thyme : 
except in syllables unaccented ; as the last of genuine ; and in a few 
monosyllables ; as bade, are, were, gone, shone, one, done, give, live, shove, 
love. 



DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH E. 

E before an other vowel, in general, either forms with it an improper 
diphthong, or else belongs to a separate syllable. 

Ea, an improper diphthong, mostly sounds like open e ; as in ear, fear, 
tea: frequently like close e; as in earl, head, health : sometimes like open a; 
as in steak, bear, forswear : rarely, like middle a ; as in heart, hearth, heark- 
en. Ea unaccented, sounds like close u; as in vengeance, pageant. 

Ee, an improper diphthong, has the sounds of open a; as in eel, sheep, 
tree. The contractions e'er and ne'er, are pronounced air and nair. 

Ei, an improper diphthong, mostly sounds like open a ; as in reign, veil : 
frequently like open e ; as in deceit, either, neither, seize : sometimes, like 
openi; as in height, sleight: often in unaccented syllables, like close i; 
as in foreign, forfeit, surfeit, sovereign : rarely, like close e ; as in heifer, 
nonpareil. 

Eo, an improper diphthong, in people sounds like open e ; in feoff, feoff- 
ment, leopard, jeopardy, like close e ; in yeoman , like openo; in George, 
georgic, like close o ; in dungeon, puncheon, sturgeon, fyc, like close u. Feod, 
feodal, feodatory, are now written as they are pronounced, feud, feudal, 
feudatory. 

Eu and ew have the diphthongal sound of open u; as in feud, deuce; jew, 
dew, few, new. These diphthongs when initial, sound like yu. Nouns be- 
ginning with this sound, require the article a, and not an, before them; as, 
A European, a cuer. After r or rh, eu and ew are commonly sounded like 
oo ; as in drew, grew, screw, rheumatism. 

In sew and Shrewsbury, ew sounds like open o. Sliew and strew are 
properly spelled, as they are pronounced } show, stroio. 



288 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ey, accented, has the sound of open a; as in bey, prey, survey: unac- 
cented, it has the sound of open e ; as in alley, valley, money. Key and ley 
are pronounced, kee, lee. 

TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH E. 

Eau, a French triphthong, sounds like open o ; as in beau, flambeau, port- 
manteau, bureau : except in beauty, and its compounds, in which it is pro- 
nounced like open u. 

Eou is a combination of vowels sometimes heard in one syllable, espe- 
cially after c or g ; as in crus-ta-ceous, gor-geous. Walker, in his Rhyming 
Dictionary, gives one hundred and twenty words ending in eous, in all of 
which he separates these vowels ; as in extra-ne-ous. And why, in his Pro- 
nouncing Dictionary, he gave us several such anomalies as fa-ba-ce-ous in 
four syllables, and her-ba-ceous in three, it is not easy to tell. The best rule 
is this : after c or g, unite these vowels ; after the other consonants, separate 
them. 

Ewe is a triphthong having the sound of yu. The vulgar pronunciation 
yoe should be carefully avoided. 

Eye is an improper triphthong, pronounced like open i. 

F 

The consonant F has one unvaried sound, which is heard in fan, effbit, 
staff: except of, which, when simple, is pronounced ov. 

G 

The consonant G has two sounds ; the one hard, guttural, and peculiar to 
this letter ; the other soft, like that of j. 

G before a, o, u, I, r, or at the end of a word, is hard ; as in game, gone, 
gull, glory, grace, log, bog. 

G before e, i, or y, is soft ; as in gem, ginger, elegy. Except — 1. In get, 
give, gewgaw, Jin ger, and a few other words. 2. When a syllable is added 
to a word ending in g : as, long, longer ; fog, foggy. 

G is silent before m or n in the same syllable ; as in phlegm, apothegm, 
gnaw, resign. 

G when silent, usually lengthens the preceding vowel ; as in resign, im- 
pugn, impregn. 

Gh at the beginning of a word has the sound of g hard; as in ghost, 
ghostly, ghastly : in other situations, it is generally silent ; as in high, migh- 
ty, plough, bough, through. 

Gh final sometimes sounds like f; as in laugh, rough, tough : and some- 
times, like g hard; as in burgh. In hough, lough, shough, it sounds like k; 
thus, hock, lock, shock. 

H 

The sound of the consonant H, (though articulate and audible when prop- 
erly uttered,) is little more than an aspirate breathing. It is heard in hat, 
hit, hot, hut, adhere. 

H at the beginning of words, is always sounded ; except in heir, herb, 
honest, Jtonour, hospital, hostler, hour, humble, humour, and their com- 
pounds. 

H after r, is always silent ; as rheum, rhetoric. 

H final, preceded by a vowel in the same syllable, is always silent ; as in 
ah, Sarah, Nineveh. 



The vowel J has three sounds properly its own : 

1. The open or long ; as in life, fine, time, find, bind, child, mild, icild, 



APPENDIX I. LETTERS. 289 

pint. This is a diphthongal sound, and is equivalent to the sound of middle 
a una that of open t quickly united. 

2. The close or short ; as in ink, think, sinking-. 

0. The feeble ; as in divest, doctrinal, diversity. This sound is equivalent 
to that of open e uttered feebly. / generally has this sound when it occurs 
at the end of an unaccented syllable : exeept at the end of Latin words, 
where it is open or long ; as in literati. In some words, (principally from 
other modern languages.) i has the full sound of open c, under the accent; 
as in Porto Rico, machine, magazine, antique, shire. 

Accented i followed by a vowel, has its open sound; and the vowels be- 
long to separate syllables; as in pliant, diet, satiety, violet, pious. 

Unaccented i followed by a vowel, has its feeble sound ; as in expatiate, 
obedient, various, abstemious. 

DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH I. 

1, in the situation last described, readily coalesces with the vowel 

which follows, and is often sunk into the same syllable, forming a proper 
diphthong ; as in fustian, quotient, question. The terminations cion, sion, 
and turn, are generally pronounced shun; cious and tious are pronounced 
shus. 

le is commonly an improper diphthong. le final has the sound of open 
£; as in die. lie, pie, tie. Te medial generally has the sound of open e; as in 
grief thief, grenadier. In friend and its compounds, it takes the sound of 
close e. 

TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH I. 

The triphthongs ieu and lew, sound like open u ; as in lieu, adieu, view, 
review. 

The three vowels iou, in the termination ious, often fall into one syllable 
and form a triphthong. There are two hundred and forty-five words of this 
ending; and more than two hundred derivatives from them. Walker has 
several puzzling inconsistencies in their pronunciation ; such 'dsfas-tid-i-ous 
and per-fid-ious, con-ta-gi-ous and sac-ri-le-gious. After c. g, t, or x, these 
vowels should coalesce ; as in gra-cious, re-li-gious, vex-a-tious, ob-nox-ious, 
and about two hundred other words. After the other consonants, let them 
form two syllables ; (except when there is a synseresis in poetry ;) as in du~ 
bi-ous, o-di-mis, va-ri-ous, en-vi-ous. 

J 

The consonant J always has the sound of soft g ; as in joy, jewel: except 
in hallelujah, better written as it is pronounced, halleluiah. 

K 

The consonant K has the sound of c hard ; and occurs where c would 
have its soft sound : as in keep, kind, smoky. 

K before n is silent; as in knave, know, knuckle. It is never doubled, ex- 
cept in the name Habakkuk. C before it, doubles the sound, and shortens 
the preceding vowel ; as in cockle, wicked. 



The consonant L has a sott liquid sound; as in line, lily, roll, follow. 
L is sometimes silent ; as in alms, almond, calf, chalk, could, would, 
should. 

M 

The consonant M has Nit one sound ; as in map, murmur, mammon, ft 
is never silent. Com-vti-oller is pronounced controller 

25 



290 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

N 

The consonant N has two sounds : the pure ; as in nun, banner, cannon ; 
and the ringing sound of ng ; as in think, mangle, conquer, congress, sing- 
ing, twinkling. The latter sound should be carefully preserved in all words 
ending in ing ; and in such others as require it. 

N final preceded by m, is silent; as in hymn, solemn. 

o 

The vowel O has three sounds properly its own : 

1. The open or long; as in no, note, opiate, opacity, domain. 

2. The close or short ; as in not, no?', torrid, dollar. 

3. The slender ; as in prove, move, who, to, do, tomb. 

O in many words sounds like close u; as in love, shove, son, come ) 
nothing, dost, attorney, gallon, dragon. In the termination on immediately 
after the accent, o is often sunk into a sound scarcely perceptible like 
that of obscure e; as in mason, person. One is pronounced wun; and once, 
wunce. 

DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH O. 

Oa, an improper diphthong, has the sound of open o ; as in boat, coal, roach : 
except in broad and groat, which have the sound of broad a. 

Oe, an improper diphthong, when final, has the sound of open o ; as in 
doe, foe, throe : except in canoe, shoe, pronounced canoo, shoo. (E, a Lat- 
in diphthong, generally sounds like open e; as in Antceci, foetus: some- 
times like close e ; as in foetid. Some authors reject the o, and write 
fetid, &c. 

Oi is generally a proper diphthong, uniting the sound of close o or broad a, 
and that of open e ; as in boil, coil, soil, rejoice. But the vowels sometimes 
belong to separate syllables ; as in stoic. Oi unaccented, sometimes has the 
sound of close i; as in avoirdupois, connoisseur, tortoise. Choir is now fre- 
quently written as it is pronounced, quire. 

00. an improper diphthong, generally has the slender sound of o; as 
in coo, too, woo, fool, room. It has a shorter sound in foot, good, wood, 
stood, wool ; that of close u, in blood and flood ; and that of open o, in door 
and floor. 

Ou is generally a proper diphthong, uniting the sound of close o, and 
that of u sounded as slender o or oo ; as in bound, found, sound, ounce, 
thou. 

Ou is also an improper diphthong ; and, as such, it has six sounds : 

1. That of close u; as in rough, tough, young, flourish. 

2. That of broad a; as in ought, bought, thought. 

3. That of open o ; as in court, dough, four, though. 

4. That of close o; only in cough, trough, lough, shough. 

5. That of slender o or oo ; as in soup, you, through. 

6. That of oo, shortened ; only in would, could, should. 

Ow generally sounds like the proper diphthong ou ; as in brown, dowry, 
now, shower : but it often has the sound of open o ; as in know, show, stow. 
Oy is sounded like oi; as in joy, toy. 

TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH O. 

Oeu is a French triphthong occurring in the word manoeuvre, which is 
pronounced in English man-oo-vur. Owe is an improper triphthong, in 
which the o only is heard, and with its long open sound. 



The consonant P has but one sound; which is heard in pen, sup, supper 
It ii sometimes silent j as in psalm % receipt, corps. 



APPENDIX I. LETTERS. 291 

Ph generally sounds like/; as in philosophy. In Stephen and nephew, 
ph has the sound of v. The h after p, is silent in diphthong, triphthong, naph- 
tha., ophthalmic ; and both the p and the h are silent in apophthegm, phthisis, 
phthisical. From the last three words, ph is sometimes dropped. 

a 

The consonant Q has the sound of k, and is always followed by the vow- 
el u, which, in words purely English, is sounded like w; as in queen, quar- 
ter, request. In some words of French origin, the u is silent ; as in coquet, 
liquor, burlesque. 

R 

The consonant R, at the beginning of words, has a rough sound ; as 
in rose, roam ; in other situations, a smoother one ; as in proud, harrow, 
barber, 

s 

The consonant S has a sharp, hissing sound ; as in sad, sister, thus : and 
a flat sound, like that of z ; as' in rose, dismal. 

S, at the beginning of words, or after any of the sharp consonants, is al- 
ways sharp ; as in see, steps, cliffs, sits, stocks, smiths. 

S, after any of the flat mutes, or at the end of words when not preceded 
by a sharp consonant, is generally flat : as in eyes, trees, beds, bags, calves. 
Ss is generally sharp. 

S, in the termination sion, takes the sound of sh, after a consonant ; 
as in aspersion, session: and that of zh, after a vowel; as in invasion, 
elision. 

S is silent in isle, island, aisle, demesne, viscount. 



The general sound of the consonant T, is heard in time, letter, set. 

T, immediately after the accent, takes the sound of tch, before u, and 
generally also before eou: as in nature, feature, virtue, righteous, cour- 
teous : when s or x precedes, it takes this sound before ia or io ; as in 
fustian, bastion, mixtion. But the general sound off after the accent, when 
followed by i and an other vowel, is that of sh ; as in creation, patient, 
cautious. 

T*is sometimes silent; as in often, rustic, whistle. 

Th represents an elementary sound. It is either sharp, as in thing, ethi- 
cal, thinketh; or flat, as in this, whither, thither. 

Th initial is sharp; as in thank : except in than, that, the, thee, their, them, 
then, thence, tJiere, these, they, thine, this, thither, those, thou, thus, thy, and 
their compounds. 

Th final is also sharp ; as in south : except in beneath, booth, with, and 
several verbs in th, which are frequently (and more properly) written with 
final e ; as soothe, smoothe, bequeathe. 

Th medial is sharp, when preceded or followed by a consonant ; as in 
swartliy, athwart : except in brethren, burthen, farther, farthing, murther, 
northern, worthy. 

Th between two vowels, is generally flat in words purely English ; as in 
gather, neither, whither : and sharp in words from the learned languages; as 
in atheist, ether, method. 

Th in Thames, Thomas, thyme, asthma, jjJithisic, and their compounds, is 
pronounced like t. 

u 

The vowel U has three sounds properly its own : 

1. The open, long, or diphthongal ; as in tube, cubic, juvenile. 



292 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

2. The close or short ; as in tub, butter, justice. 

3. The middle ; as in pull, pulpit, artful. 

U forming a syllable by itself, is nearly equivalent in sound to you, and re- 
quires the article a, and not an, before it ; as, a union. 

Bury and busy are pronounced berry, bizzy. Their compounds are 
similar. 

After r or rh, open a, and the diphthongs ue and ui, take the sound of oo; 
as in rude, rhubarb, rue, rueful, fruit, fruitful. 

DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH U. 

U, in the proper diphthongs ua, ue, ui, uo, uy, has the sound of w or oo 
feeble ; as in persuade, query, quell, quiet, languid, quote, obloquy. 

Ua, an improper diphthong, has the sound — 1. of middle a; as in guard, 
guardian: 2. of close a; as in guarantee, piquant: 3. of obscure e ; as in vic- 
tuals and its compounds : 4. of open u ; as in manluamaker. 

Ue, 'an improper diphthong, has the sound — 1. of open u; as in blue, en- 
sue, ague : 2. of close e ; as in guest : 3. of obscure e ; as in league, an- 
tique. 

Ui, an improper diphthong, has the sound — 1. of open i; as guide, guile: 
2. of close i ; as in conduit, circuit : 3. of open u ; as in juice, suit. 

Uy, an improper diphthong, has the sound — 1. of open y; a&in&u?/: 2. of 
feeble y, or open e feeble ; as in plaguy. 

TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH U. 

l/ai is pronounced like way; as in guai-a-cum, quail, quaint. 
Uaw is sounded like wa in water; as in squaw, a female Indian. 
Uay has the sound of way, as in Pa-ra-guay ; except in quay, which 
Walker pronounces kee. 

Uea and uee are sounded wee ; as in queasy, queer, squeal, squeeze. 
Uoi and uoy are sounded woi ; as in quoit, buoy. 



The consonant V always has a sound like that off flattened ^ as in love, 
vulture. It is never silent. 

w 

W, as a consonant, has the sound heard in wine, win, being a sound less 
vocal than that of oo, and depending more upon the lips. 

W before h, is pronounced as if it followed the h; as in what, when. Be- 
fore r it is always silent ; as in wrath, wrench : so fai whole, whoop, sword, 
answer, two. 

Wis never used alone as a vowel ' r except in some Welsh names, in which 
it is equivalent to oo; as in Cwm Cothy. In a diphthong, when heard, it 
has the power of u; as in brow: but it is frequently silent; as inflow, 
snow, fyc. 

W, when sounded before vowels, being reckoned a consonant, we have no 
diphthongs or triphthongs beginning with this letter. 

x 

The consonant JJfhas a shdrp sound, like ks; as in ox : and a flat one, 
like gz ; as in example. 

X is sharp, when it ends an accented syllable j as in exit, excellence : or 
when it precedes an accented syllable beginning with a consonant ; as in 
expound, expunge. 

X unaccented, is generally flat when the next syllable begins with a vow- 
el ; as in exist t exotic. 



APPENDIX II. DERIVATION. 297 

DERIVATION OF THE PRONOUNS. 

The English pronouns are all of Saxon origin. The following appears to 
be their derivation : 

Eng. 7, my or mine, me; we, our or ours, us. 

Sax. ic, myn, m e; pe, ujie up. 

Eng. thou, thy or thine, thee ; ye, your or yours, you. 

Sax. £>u, &m, fte ; ge, eopen, eop. 

Eng. he, his, him ; they, their or theirs, them. 

Sax. he, hyp, him; hi, heji, or Seojia, hem. 

Eng. she, her or hers, her ; they, their or theirs, them. 

Sax. heo, hejia or hyna, hen ; hi, hen, or Seojia, hem. 

Eng. it, its, it ; they, their or theirs, them. 

Sax. hit hyp, hie ; hi, hen, or Seona, hem. 

The plurals and oblique cases do not all appear to be regular derivatives 
from the nominative singular. Many of these pronouns, as well as a vast 
number of other words of frequent use in the language, were variously writ- 
ten by the old English and Anglo-Saxon authors. He who traces the his- 
tory of our language will meet with them under all the following forms, and 
perhaps more : 

1. I, J, Y, y, y, i, ic, che, ich, ic, — My, mi, min, mine, rnyn®^ 
myn, myn, — me, mee, me; — we, wee, ve, pe, — our or our& 
oure, une — us, ous, vs, ur. 

2. Thou, thoue, thow, thowe, thu, su, — thy, thi, thin, thine 
thyne, thyn, sm, — thee, the, be ; — ye, yee, ze, zee, se, — youb 
or, yours, youre, zour, sour, soure, eopeji, — you, youe, yow, 
sou, zou, ou, mh, eop. 

3. He, hee, hie, hi, he, — his, hise, is, hys, hyse, ys, ys, hys, 
hyr, — him, hine, hen, hyne, hym, hym, im, him ; — they, thay, 
thei, the, tha, thai, thii, yai, hi, hii, hy, his, hi — their or 
theirs, ther, theyr, theyrs, thair, thare, hare, here, her, hire, 
hyna, seona, — them, theym, thaym, thaim, thame, tham, em, 
hem, heom, horn. 

4. She, shee, sche, scho, sho, rcse, reo, heo, — her, [posses- 
sive,] hur, hir, hire, hyr, hyre, hyne, hyr-a, hena, — her, [objec- 
tive,] hir, hire, heji. 

5. It, itt, hyt, hytt, yt, ys, hit, it, his. According to Home 
Tooke, this pronoun is from the perfect participle of hsesan, to 
name, and signifies the said ; but Dr. Alexander Murray makes 
it the neuter of a declinable adjective, " he, heo, hita, this. 11 — 
Hist. Lang. v. i. 315. 

The relatives are derived from the same source, and have passed through 
similar changes, or varieties in orthography ; as, 

1. Who, ho, wha, hwa, qua, quha, hpa, — whose, whos, 
quhois, quhais, quhase, hpaer, — whom, whom, quhum, quhome, 
hwom, hpam. 

2. Which, whiche, whyche, whilch, wych, qui lch, quilk, 
quhilk, hwile, hpilc. 

3. What, hwat, hwaet, hwet, quhat, quthat, qua that, hwa 
that, hpa »aee. This pronoun appears to have been originally 



298 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

a compound of who and that, though the Anglo-Saxons wrote 
it as one word, hpaet. Its compound signification strengthens 
this idea of its formation. 

4. That, sat, $see, te. Home Tooke supposes this word 
(as well as the article the) to have been originally the perfect 
participle of sean, to take. 

From its various uses, the word that is called sometimes a pronoun, 
sometimes an adjective, and sometimes a conjunction; but, in respect 
to derivation, it is, doubtless, one and the same. — As an adjective it 
was formerly applicable to a plural noun; as, " That holy ordres." — 
Dr. Martin. 

DERIVATION OF VERBS. 

In English, Verbs are derived from nouns, from adjectives, or from 
verbs. 
I. Verbs are derived from nouns. 

1. By adding ize, ise, en, or ate; as, author, authorize; method, method- 
ise; length, lengthen; origin, originate. The termination ize is of Greek 
origin ; and ise of French : the former only should be employed in forming 
English derivatives. 

2. By changing a consonant, or by adding mute e : as, advice, advise ; 
bath, bathe; breath, breathe. 

IL Verbs are derived from adjectives : 

1. By adding en, ate, or ize; as, deep, deepen; domestic, domesticate; civil } 
civilize. 

2. Many adjectives become verbs, without change of form : as, warm, to 
warm; dry, to dry ; black, to black; forward, to forward 

III. Verbs are derived from verbs : 

By prefixing a, be, dis, for, fore, mis, over, out, un, under, up, or with : as* 
rise, arise; sprinkle, besprinkle; own, disown; bid, forbid ; see, foresee; 
take, mistake; look, overlook; run, outrun; fasten, unfasten; go, undergo' 
holdj uphold; draw, withdraw. | 

DERIVATION OF PARTICIPLES. 

All English Participles are derived from English verbs, in the manner ex* 
plained under the head of Etymology, and when foreign participles are in- 
troduced into our language, they are not participles with us, but belong to 
some other part of speech. 

DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 

1. In English, many Adverbs are derived from adjectives by adding ly, 
which is an abbreviation for like : as, candid, candidly ; sordid, sordidly 
Most adverbs of manner are thus formed. 

2. Many adverbs are compounds formed from two or more English 
words ; as, herein, thereby, to-day, always, already, elsewhere, sometimes, 
wheretoithal. The formation and the meaning of these are in general suffi- 
ciently obvious. 

3. About seventy adverbs are formed by means of the prefix a; as, Abreast } 
abroad, across, afresh, away, ago, awry, astray. 

4. Needs is a contraction of need is ; prithee, of I pray thee ; alone, of 
all one ; only, of one like; anon, of in one [instant;] never, of ne ever; [not 
ever.] 

5. Very is from the French veray or vrai, true ; still, is from the impera- 
tive of the Saxon yt:e\\n.n, to put; else is from the imperative of aler-an, ta 
dismiss. Rather is the comparative of the ancient rath, soon. 



APPENDIX II. DERIVATION. 299 

DERIVATION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

The English Conjunctions are mostly of Saxon origin. The best dic- 
tionaries of our language give us, for the most part, the same words in 
Saxon characters; but Home Tooke, in his Diversions of Purley, a 
learned and curious work which the advanced student may peruse with 
advantage, traces these and many other English particles to Saxon verbs 
or participles. The following derivations are offered principally on his 
authority : 

1. Although [signifying admit, allow,] is from all and though; the latter 
being the imperative of an ancient verb, meaning to allow. 

2. An [an obsolete conjunction, signifying if or grant] is the imperative 
of the Saxon verb anan, to grant. 

3. And [add] is from an-ab, the imperative of anan-ab, to grant to } to 
add. 

4. As, according to Dr. Johnson, is from the Teutonic als ; but J. H. 
Tooke says that als itself is a contraction for all and the original particle es 
or as, meaning it, that, or which. 

5. Because [by cause] is from be and cause. 

6. Both [the two] is from the pronominal adjective both; which, accord- 
ing to Dr. Alex. Murray, is a contraction of the Visigothic bagoth, doubled> 

7. But [implying addition] is from bot, the imperative of botan, to boot } 
to add. 

8. But [denoting exception] is from be-ucan, the imperative of beon-utan, 
to be out. 

9. Either [one of the two] is from the Saxon cegther. 

10. Eke [signifying also or add, nearly obsolete] is from eac, the impera- 
tive of eacan, to add. 

11. Except [unless] is the imperative, or (according to Dr. Johnson) an 
ancient perfect participle, of the verb to except. 

12. For [because] is the Saxon po]t, or the Dutch voor, from a Gothic 
noun signifying cause or sake. 

13. If [give, grant, allow,] is from gip, [gif,] the imperative of gipan, to 
give. 

14. Lest [that not, dismissed] is from lereb, the perfect participle of leran, 
to dismiss. 

15. Neither [not either] is a union and contraction of ne either : our old 
writers frequently used ne for not. 

16. Nor [not other, not else,] is a union and contraction of ne or. 

17. Notwithstanding [not hindering] is an English compound which 
needs no explanation. 

18. Or is a contraction of the Saxon obeji, other. 

19. Save [but, except,] anciently used as a conjunction, is the imperative 
of the verb to save, meaning to except. 

20. Since [seeing or seen] is from ymey, or ryne, the perfect participle of 
reon, to see. 

21. Than, which introduces the latter term of a comparison, is from the 
Saxon banne, which was used for the same purpose. 

22. That [taken] is from bast, the perfect participle of bean, to take. 

23. Though [allow] is from bapjg, the imperative of bayigan, to allow. 

24. Unless [except, dismiss,] is from order, the imperative of onleran, to 
dismiss. 

25. Yet [get] is from get, the imperative of gesan, to get. 



300 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

26. Whether, which introduces the first term of an alternative, is the 
Saxon hpceSeji, which was used for the same purpose. 

DERIVATION OF PREPOSITIONS. 

The following is the derivation of most of the English Prepositions: 

1. About [at circuit] is from the French a, or the English prefix a, mean- 
ing at or to, and bout, meaning turn, or limit. 

2. Above [at-by-higJi] is from the Saxon a, be. and upa, high. 

3. Across [at cross] is from a and the noun cross. 

4. After [farther in the rear] is the comparative of aft, now used only 
by seamen. 

5. Against [opposed to] is from on-geonb, gone at. 

6. Along [at-long] is from a and long. 

7. Amid [at mid or middle] is from a and mid. 

8. Amidst [at midst] is from a and midst, contracted ftommiddest, the su- 
perlative of mid. 

9. Among [a-mixed] is abbreviated for amongst. 

10. Amongst [a-?nirecZ] is from a and mongst, a Saxon participle signify- 
ing mixed. 

11. Around [a£ circle] is from a and round, a circle or sphere. 

12. At [Joinwi^] is supposed by some to come from the Latin ad; but Dr. 
Murray says, " We have in Teutonic at for agt, touching or touched, joined, 
at." — Hist. Lang. i. 349. 

13. Athwart [across] is from a and thwart, cross. 

14. Before [by-fore] is from be and the adjective fore. 

15. Behind [by-hind] is from be and the adjective hind. 

16. Below [by-low] is from be and the adjective low. 

17. Beneath [below] is from be and the adjective neath, low ; whence the 
comparative nether, lower. 

18. Beside [by-side] is from be and the noun side. 

19. Besides* [by sides] is from &e and the plural noun sides. 
19. Between [by-twain] is from be and twain, two. 

21 . Betwixt [between] is from 6e and ^y.-r, a Gothic word signifying two 
or twain. 

22. Beyond [fry gwie] is from be and geonb, the perfect participle of 
geonban, to pass or go. 

23. By (formerly written bi and 6e) is the imperative of beon, to be. 

24. Concerning is from the first participle of the verb to concern. 

25. Down [low] is from the Anglo-Saxon adjective dun, low. 

26. During [lasting] is from an old verb dure, to last, formerly in use ; 
as, " While the world may dure." — Chaucer's Knight's Tale. 

27. Except is from the imperative, or (according to Dr. Johnson) the an- 
cient perfect participle, of the verb to except. 

28. Excepting is from the first participle of the verb to except. 

29. For [by cause of] is from a Gothic noun signifying cause or sake. 

30. From is derived from the Saxon pjium, or pjiam, beginning. 

31. In is from the Latin in: the Greek is eu, and the French en. 

32. Into is a compound of in and to. 

33. Notwithstanding [not hindering] is from the adverb not, and the 
participle withstanding. 

34. Of is from the Saxon op, which H. Tooke supposes to be from a noun 
signifying offspring. 



* Beside should be used as a preposition, and besides only as an adverb. 
See reasons for this distinction, in Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric. 



APPENDIX II. — DERIVATION. 301 

35. Off (opposed to on) Dr. Johnson derives from the Dutch of. 

36. On is traced by etymologists to the Gothic ana, the German an, the 
Dutch aan ; but such a derivation does not fix its meaning. 

37. Outof (opposed to into) is from the adverb out and the preposition of 
—usually written separately, but better joined in some instances. 

38. Over [above] is from upejia, higher. 

39. Overthwart is a compound of over and thwart, cross. 

40. Past is a contraction from the perfect participle passed. 

41. Round [about] is from the noun or adjective round. 

42. Since [seen] is from the perfect partieiple of peon, to see. 

43. Through (contracted from thorough) is from a Saxon word meaning 
door or passage. 

44. Throughout is a compound of through and out. 

45. Till [the end] is from the Saxon cil, noting end of time. 

46. To is a simple word from the Saxon to, which is supposed to come 
from a Gothic noun signifying end. 

47. Touching is from the first participle of the verb to touch. 

48. Toward or towards is probably a compound of to and ward, from 
pajibian, to look. 

49. Under [on nether] is from the Dutch on neder, on lower. 

50. Underneath is a compound from under and neath, low. 

51. Until is a compound from on or un and till, the end. 

52. Unto (now little used) is from on or un and to. 

53. Up is from the Saxon up, which H. Tooke traces to upa, high. 

54. Upon [high on] is from up and on. 

55. With [join] is probably from the imperative of piban, to join. 

56. Within [by-in] is from with and in. 

57. Without [by-out] is from with and out. 

58. Worth [of the value of] is from the Saxon verb wyrthan, or weorthan, 
to be ; and has by pedigree as good a claim to be a preposition as by and 
with : the old English writers used worth for be, in every part of the conj u- 
gation. According to J. H. Tooke, with, in the two compounds within and 
without, is from pyjv5, the imperative of pyjiban, to be; and the meaning of 
the former is be in, and of the latter be out. Compare the derivations of by, 
with, and worth : and see observations 6th and 7th, on Rule 22d, page 
185. 

DERIVATION OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Those significant and constructive words which are occasionally used as 
Interjections, do not require an explanation here ; and those mere sounds 
which are in no wise expressive of thought, scarcely admit of definition or 
derivation. The interjection hey is probably a corruption of the adjective 
high; — alas is from the French helas ; — alack is probably a corruption of 
alas; — welaway (which is now corrupted into welladay,) is from the Saxon 
palapa, wo on wo; — fie, from pian, to hate; — heyday, from high day ; — 
a vaunt, from the French avant, before;— lo, from look; — begone, from be 
and gone; — welcome, from well and come. 



EXPLANATION OF THE PREFIXES. 

In the formation of words, certain particles are often employed as prefix- 
sj which, as they generally have some peculiar import, m&y be separately 
explained. A few of them are of Anglo-Saxon origin; and the greater part 
of these are still employed as separate words in our language. The rest are 
Latin, Greek, or French prepositions. — The roots to which they ara prefix- 
ed, are not always proper English words. 

26 



302 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I. ENGLISH OR ANGLO-SAXON PREFIXES. 

1. A signifies on, in at, or to; as in a-broad, ashore, asleep, a- far, a-ficld. 
The French a, to, is probably the same ; as in a-dieu. This prefix is some- 
times redundant ; as in a-wake, a-rise. 

2. Be signifies upon, by, to, or for ; as in bespatter, be-iivies, 7 >s-iide > be- 
speak. It is sometimes redundant ; as in be-gird, be-deck, be-loved. 

3. Counter means against or opposite ; as in oounter-poise, counter- evi- 
dence, counter-natural. 

4. For, in composition, seems to signify from : it is found in the irregular 
verbs for-bear, for-bid, for-get, for-give, forsake, forswear; and in for-do, 
for-pass,for-pine, forsay,for-think,for-waste, which last are now seldom 
used. 

5. Fore, prefixed to verbs, signifies before; as in fore-know, fore-tell; 
prefixed to nouns, it is an adjective, and signifies anterior ; as mfore-side, 
fore-part. 

6. Half, signifying one of two equal parts, is much used in composition ; 
and, often, merely to denote imperfection ; as, half-sighted, seeing imper- 
fectly. 

7. Mis signifies wrong ; as in mis-do, mis-place. 

8. Over, denotes superiority or excess : as in over-power, overstrain, over- 
large. 

9. Out, prefixed to verbs, generally denotes excess ; as in out-do, out- 
leap : prefixed to nouns, it is an adjective, and signifies exterior; as in out- 
side, out-parish. 

10. Self signifies one's own person, or belonging to one's own person. It 
is much used in composition ; as in self-love, self-abuse, self-affairs, self-will- 
ed, self accusing. Sometimes self means very ; as in selfsame. 

11. Un denotes negation or contrariety; as in un-kind, un-load. 

12. Under denotes inferiority ; as in under-value, under-clerk. 

13. Up denotes motion upwards ; as in up-lift : sometimes subversion ; as 
in upset. 

14. With signifies against, from, or back ; as in withstand, with-hold^ 
with- draw. 

II. LATIN PREFIXES. 

The primitives to which these are prefixed, are not many of them employ- 
ed separately in English. The final letter of the prefix ad, con, ex, in, ob, or 
sub, is often changed before certain consonants. 

1. A, ab, or abs, means from, or away: as, a-vert, to turn from; ab-duce, 
to lead from ; abs-tract, to draw away. 

2. Ad, ac, of, al, an, ap, as, at, — to or at : as, ad-vert, to turn to ; ac-cede, 
to yield to ; afflux, a flowing-to ; al-ly, to bind to ; an-nex, to link to ; ap- 
ply, to put to ; assume, to take to ; at-test, to witness to. 

3. Ante, — before; as ante-cedent, going before ; ante-mundane, before the 
world; ante-date, to date before. 

4. Circum— around or about : as, circum-volve, to roll around. 

5. Con, com, co, col, cor, — together : as, con-tract, to draw together ; com- 
pel, to drive together ; co-erce, to force together ; col-lect, to gather together ; 
eor-rade, to scrape together; con-junction, a joining together. 

6. Contra,— against: as contra-diet, to speak against. 

7. De, — of, from, or down : as, de-note, to be a sign of; de-tract, to draw 
from; de-pend, to hang down; de-press, to press down. 

8. Dis, di, — away or apart: as, dis-pel, to drive away; dissect, to cut 
apart ; di-vert, to turn away. Dis, before English words, generally reverses 
their meaning ; as, please, dis -please. 

9. E or ex, ec, ef — out: as, e-ject, to cast out; ex-tract } to draw out; ec- 
stacy > a raising-out ; efface, to blot out. 



APPENDIX H. DERIVATION. 303 

10. Extra, — beyond: as, extra-vagant, wandering beyond. 

11. In, il, im, ir, — in, into, against, or upon: as, inspire, to breathe in; 
il-ludc, to draw in by deceit ; im-mure, to wall in ; ir-ruption, a breaking in ; 
in-cur, to run into; in-dict, to declare against; im-pute, to charge upon. 
These syllables, prefixed to nouns or adjectives, generally reverse their mean- 
ing ; as, ir-religion, ir-rational, in-secure, in-sane. 

12. Inter, — between: as, intersperse, to scatter between; inter-jection, 
something thrown in between. 

13. Intro, — within: as, intro-vert, to turn within. 

14. Ob, oc, of, op, — against : as, ob-trude, to thrust against ; oc-cur, to run 
against ; of-fer, to bring against ; op-pose, to place against ; ob-ject, cast 
against. 

15. Per, — through or by: as, pcr-vade, to go through; per-chance, by 
chance ; per-cent, by the hundred. 

16. Post, — after : as, post-pone, to place after. 

17, — Pr.e, or pre, — before: as, presume, to take before; pre-position, a 
placing-before, or something placed before. 

18. Pro, — for, forth, or forwards: as, pro-vide, to take care for; pro-dnice i 
to bring forth ; pro-trude, to thrust forwards. 

19. Preter, — past or beyond : as, preter-it, gone by ; preter-natural, be- 
yond what is natural. 

20. Re, — again or back: as, re-view, to view again; re-pel, to drive 
back. 

21. Retro, — backwards: as, retro-cession, a going-backwards. 

22. Se, — aside or apart : as, se-duce, to lead aside; se-cede, to go apart. 

23. Semi, — half: as, semi-colon, half a colon; semi-circle, half a circle; 
semi-vowel, half a vowel. 

24. Sub, sup, sur, — under : as, subscribe, to write under ; sup-ply, to put 
under ; sur-reption, a creeping-under ; sub-ject, cast under. 

25. Subter, — beneath : as, subter-Jluous, flowing beneath. 

26. Super, — over or above : as, super-fiuous, flowing over; super-natant, 
swimming above ; super-lative, carried over. 

27. Trans, — beyond, over, to an other state or place : as, trans-gress, to 
pass beyond or over ; trans-mit, to send to an other place ; trans-form, to 
change to an other shape. 

IH. GREEK PREFIXES. 

1. A and an, in Greek, denote privation: as, a-nomalous, wanting rule; 
an-onymous, wanting name ; an-archy, want of government. 

2. Amphi, — both or two : as, amphi-bious, living in two elements. 

3. Anti, — against : as, anti-acid, against acidity ; anti-febrile, against 
fever ; anti-thesis, a placing-against. 

4. Apo, aph, — from; as, apostrophe, a turning-from ; aph-ceresis,& taking- 
fi'om. • 

5. DiA^through : as, dia-gonal, through the corners ; dia-meter, the 
measure through. 

6. Epi, eph, — upon : as, epi-dcmic, upon the people ; eph-emera, upon a 
day. 

7. Hemi, — half: as, hemisphere, half a sphere. 

8. Hyper, — over: as, hyper-critical, over-critical. 

9. Hypo, — under: as, hypostasis, substance, or that which stands under; 
hypo-thesis, supposition, or a placing-under. 

10. Meta, — beyond, over, to an other state or place : as, meta-morphose i 
to change to an other shape. 

11. Para, — against : as, para-dox, something contrary to common 
opinion. . 

12. Peri, — around : as, peri-phery, the circumference, or measure round. 



304 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

13. S yn, sT/m, syl, — together : as, syn-tax, a placing-together ; sym~pathy } 
a suffering- together ; syl-lable, what is taken together. 

• J 

IV. FRENCH PREFIXES. 

1. A is a preposition of very frequent use in French, and generally means 
to. We have suggested that it is probably the same as the Anglo-Saxon 
prefix a. It is found in a few English compounds that are of French, and 
not of Saxon origin : as, a-dieu, to God ; a-bout, to the end or turn. 

2. De, — of or from : as in de-mure, of manners ; de-liver, to ease from 
or of. 

3. Demi, — half: as, demi-man, half a man. 

4. En, em, — in, into, or upon : as, en-chain, to hold in chains ; em-bracc, 
to clasp in the arms ; en-tomb, to put into a tomb ; em-boss, to stud upon. 
Many words are yet wavering between the French and the Latin orthogra- 
phy of this prefix ; as, embody or imbody, ensurance or insurance, ensnare or 
insnare. 

5. Sur, — upon, over, or after: as, sur-name, a name upon a name; sur- 
vey, to look over; sur-vive, to live after, to over-live, to out-live. 



■I 



APPENDIX III. 

(SYNTAX.) 

OF STYLE. 

Style is the particular manner in which a person expresses his concep- 
tions by means of language. It is different from mere words, and is not 
to be regulated altogether by rules of construction. It always has some 
relation to the author's peculiar manner of thinking ; and, being that sort 
of expression which his thoughts most readily assume, sometimes par- 
takes, not only of what is characteristic of the man, but even of national 
peculiarity. The words which an author employs, may be proper, and 
so constructed as to violate no rule of syntax ; and yet his style may 
have great faults. 

To designate the general characters of style, such epithets as concise, 
diffuse, — neat, negligent, — nervous, feeble, — simple, affected, — easy, stiff, 
— perspicuous, obscure,— elegant, florid, — are employed. A considerable 
diversity of style, may be found in compositions all equally excellent in 
their kind. And, indeed, different subjects, as well as the different endow- 
ments by which genius is distinguished, require this diversity. But in 
forming his style, the learner should remember, that a negligent, feeble, 
affected, stiff, or obscure style, is always faulty ; and that perspicuity, 
ease, simplicity, strength, and neatness, are qualities always to be aimed at. 

In order to acquire a good style, the frequent practice of composing is 
indispensably necessary Without exercise and diligent attention, rules 
for the attainment of this object will be of no avail. When the learner 
has acquired such a knowledge of grammar, as to be in some degree quali- 
fied for the undertaking, he should devote a stated portion of his time to 
composition. This exercise will bring the powers of his mind into requi- 
sition, in a way that is well calculated to strengthen them. And if he 
has opportunity for reading, he may, by a diligent perusal of the best 
authors, acquire both language, taste, and sentiment ; which are the es- 
sential qualifications of a good writer. 

In regard to the qualities which constitute a good style, we can here 
offer no more- than a few brief hints. With respect to words and phrases, 
particular attention should be paid to purity, propriety, and precision; 
and, with respect to sentences, to perspicuity, unity, and strength. Un- 
der each of these heads we shall arrange in the form of short precepts, 
a few of the most important directions for the forming of a good style. 

I. PURITY. 

Purity of style consists in the use of such words and phrases only, as 
belong to the language which we write or speak. 

Precept 1. Avoid the unnecessary use of foreign words or idioms; as, 
fraicheur, hauteur, delicatesse, politesse, noblesse; he repented himself; 
it serves to an excellent purpose. 

Precept 2. Avoid obsolete or antiquated words: as, whilom, ereiohile, 
whoso, albeit, moreover, aforetime, methinks. 

Precept 3. Avoid strange or unauthorized words : as, fluttcration, in- 
spectator, judgematical, incumberment, connexity, electerized, mar- 
tyrized. 

Precept 4. Avoid bombast, or affectation of fine writing. It is ridicu- 
lous, however serious the subject : as, " Personifications, however rich 

26* 



806 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the depictions, and unconstrained their latitude; analogies, however im- 
posing the objects of parallel, and the media of comparison ; can never ex- 
pose the consequences of sin to the extent of fact, or the range of demon- 
stration." — Anon. 

II. PROPRIETY. 

Propriety of language consists in the selection and right construction, of 
such words as the best usage has appropriated to those ideas which we in- 
tend to express by them. 

Precept 1. Avoid low and provincial expressions : such as, says I; 
thinks I to myself; to get into a scrape ; stay here while I return. 

Precept 2. In writing prose, avoid words and phrases that are merely 
poetical : such as, morn, eve, plaint, lone, amid, oft, steepy ; what tbne the 
winds arise. 

Precept 3. Avoid technical terms: except where they are necessary, in 
treating of a particular art or science. 

Precept 4. Avoid the recurrence of words in different senses, or such a 
repetition of words as denote paucity of language: as, "His own reason 
might have suggested better reasons." — " Gregory favoured the undertaking, 
for no other reason than this ; that the manager, in countenance, favoured 
his friend." — " I want to go and see what he wants." 

Precept 5. Supply words that are wanting : thus, in stead of " This ac- 
tion increased his former services," say, " This action increased the merit of 
his former services." 

Precept 6. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions : as, " His mem- 
ory shall be lost on the earth." — "I long since learned to like nothing but 
what you do." 

Precept 7. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions : as, " I 
have observed that the superiority among these coffee-house politicians, pro- 
ceeds from an opinion of gallantry and fashion." — "These words do not con- 
vey even an opaque idea of the author's meaning." 

Precept 8. Observe the natural order of things or events, and do not 
put the cart before the horse: as, " The scribes taught and studied the law of 
Moses." — " They can neither return to nor leave their houses." — " He tumbled, 
head over heels, into the water." 

III. PRECISION. 

Precision consists in avoiding all superfluous words, and adapting the 
expression exactly to the thought, so as to exhibit neither more nor less 
than is intended by the author. 

Precept 1. Avoid a useless tautology, either of expression or sentiment: 
as in " return again; return back again; converse together; rise up; fall 
down; enter in; a mutual likeness to each other; the latter end; liquid 
streams ; grateful thanks ; the last of all ; throughout the whole book ; 
whenever I go, he always meets me there; for why; because why ; from, 
hence ; where is he at ? in there ; nothing else but that ; it is odious and 
hateful ; his faithfulness and fidelity should be rewarded." 

Precept 2. Observe the exact meaning of words accounted synonymous, 
and employ those which are the most suitable : as, " A diligent scholar may 
acquire knowledge, gain celebrity, obtain rewards, win prizes, and get high 
honour, though he earn no money." These six verbs have nearly the same 
meaning, and yet they cannot well be changed. 

IV. PERSPICUITY. 
Perspicuity consists in freedom from obscurity or ambiguity. It is a 
quality so essential, in every kind of writing, that for the want of it, no 
merit can atone. Without this, the richest ornaments of style, only glim- 
mer through the dark, and puzzle in stead of pleasing the reader. Perspi- 



APPENDIX III. STYLE. 307 

cuity, being the most important property of language, and an exemption 
from the most embarrassing defects, seems even to rise to a degree of posi- 
tive beauty. We are naturally pleased with a style that frees us from all 
suspense in regard to the meaning ; that carries us through the subject 
without embarrassment or confusion ; and that always flows like a limpid 
stream, through which we can see to the very bottom. 

Precept 1. Place adjectives, relative pronouns, participles, adverbs, and 
explanatory phrases, as near as possible to the words to which they relate, 
and in such a situation as the sense requires. The following sentences are 
deficient in perspicuity: — " Reverence is the veneration paid to superior 
sanctity, intermixed with a certain degree of awe." "The Romans under- 
stood liberty, at least, as well as We." "Taste was never made to cater for 
vanity." 

Precept 2. In prose, avoid a poetic collocation of words. 

Precept 3. Avoid faulty ellipses, and repeat all words necessary to pre- 
serve the sense. The following sentences require the words inserted in 
crotchets: " Restlessness of mind disqualifies us, both for the enjoyment of 
peace, and [for] the performance of our duty." — Murray's Key. "The 
Christian religion gives a more lovely character of God, than any [other] reli- 
gion ever did." — Ibid. 

V. UNITY. 

Unity consists in keeping one object predominant throughout a sentence 
or paragraph. Every sentence, whether its parts be few or many, requires 
strict unity. 

Precept 1. Avoid brokenness and hitching. The following example 
lacks the very quality of which it speaks : " But most of all, in a single sen- 
tence, is required the strictest unity. It may consist of parts, indeed, but 
these parts must be so closely bound together, as to make the impression 
upon the mind, of one object, not of many." — Murray's Grammar. 

Precept 2. Treat different topics in separate paragraphs, and distinct 
sentiments in separate sentences. Error: "The two volumes are, indeed, 
intimately connected, and constitute one uniform system of English gram- 
mar." — Murray's Preface. 

Precept 3. In the progress of a sentence, do not desert the principal 
subject in favour of adjuncts. Error: "To substantives belong gender, 
number, and case ; and they are all of the third person when spoken of and 
of the second when spoken to." — Murray's Grammar. 

Precept 4. Do not introduce parentheses, except when a lively remark 
may be thrown in without diverting the mind too long from the principal 
subject. 

VI. STRENGTH. 

Strength consists in giving to the several wordy and members of a sen- 
tence, such an arrangement as shall bring out the sense to the best advan- 
tage, and present every idea in its due importance. A concise style is the 
most favourable to strength. 

Precept 1 . Place the most important words in the situation in which 
they will make the strongest impression. 

Precept 2. A weaker assertion should not follow a stronger; and 
when the sentence consists of two members, the longer should be the 
concluding one. 

Precept 3. When things are to be compared or contrasted, their 
resemblance or opposition will be rendered more striking, if some resem- 
blance in the language and construction, be preserved. 

Precept 4. It is, in general, ungraceful to end a sentence with an ad- 
verb, a preposition, or any inconsiderable word or phrase, which may either 
De omitted or be introduced earlier. 



APPENDIX IV. 

(PROSODY.) 

OF POETIC DICTION. 

Poetry, (as defined by Dr. Blair) " is the language of pjssion, or of 
enlivened imagination, formed, most commonly, into regular numbers." 
The style of poetry differs, in many respects, from that which is commonly 
adopted in prose. Poetic diction abounds in bold figures of speech, and un- 
usual collocations of words. A great 'part of the figures which have been 
treated of under the head of prosody, are purely poetical. The primary aim 
of a poet, is to please and to move ; and, therefore, it is to the imagination, 
and the passions, that he speaks. He may, and he ought to have it in his 
view, to instruct and reform; but it is indirectly, and by pleasing and 
moving, that he accomplishes this end. The exterior and most obvious dis- 
tinction of poetry, is versification: yet there are some forms of verse so 
loose and familiar, as to be hardly distinguishable from prose; and there is 
also a species of prose, so measured in its cadences, and so much raised in 
its tone, as to approach very nearly to poetical numbers. 

POETICAL PECULIARITIES. 

The following are some of the most striking peculiarities in which the 
poets indulge, and are indulged : 

I. They very often omit the ARTICLES ; as, 

" What dreadful pleasure ! there to stand sublime, 
" Like shipwreck *d mariner on desert coast!" — Beattie. 

II. They abbreviate many NOUNS; as, amaze for amazement, acclaim 
for acclamation, consult for consultation, corse for corpse, eve or even for even- 
ing, fount for fountain, helm for helmet, lament for lamentation, morn for 
morning, plaint for complaint, targe for target, weal for wealth. 

III. They employ several nouns that are not used in prose ; as, benison, 
boon, emprise, fane, guerdon, guise, ire, ken, lore, meed, sire, steed, welkin, 
yore. 

IV. They introduce the noun self after an other noun of the possessive 
case; as, 

1. " Affliction's semblance bends not o'er thy tomb, 

Affliction's self deplores thy youthful doom."- — Byron. 

2. " Thoughtless of beauty, she was beauty's self." — Thomson, 

V. They place before the verb, words that usually come after it; and, af- 
ter it, those that usually come before it : as, 

1. " No jealousy their dawn of love o'ercast, 

Nor blasted were their wedded days with strife." — Beattie, 

2. " No hive hast thou of hoarded sweets." 

3. " Thy chain a wretched weight shall prove." — Langhome. 

4. " Follows the loosen'd aggravated roar" — Thomson. 

5. u That purple grows the primrose pale." — Langhornc. 



APPENDIX IV. FOETIC DICTION. 309 

VI. They often place ADJECTIVES after their nouns ; as, 

1. " Or where the gorgeous East, with richest hand, 

Showers on her kings barbaric, pearl and gold." — Milton. 

2. " Come, nymph demure, with mantle blue." 

VII. They ascribe qualities to things to which they do not literally be- 
long; as, 

1. " And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds." — Gray. 

2. M Imbitter'd more from peevish day to day." — Thomson. 

3. " All thin and naked to the numb cold nighty — Shakspeare. 

VIII. They use concrete terms to express abstract qualities ; (i. e. adjec- 
tives for nouns ; ) as, 

1. " Earth's meanest son, all trembling, prostrate falls, 

And on the boundless of thy goodness calls." — Young. 

2. " Meanwhile, whate'er of beautiful or new, 

Sublime or dreadful, in earth, sea, or sky, 

By chance or search was offered to his view, 

He scann'd with curious and romantic eye." — Beattie. 

3. " Won from the void and formless infinite." — Milton. 

IX. They substitute quality for manner ; (i. e. adjectives for ad- 
verbs ;) as, 

1. " The stately-sailing swan, 

Gives out his snowy plumage to the gale ; 

And, arching proud his neck, with oary feet 

Bears forward fierce, and guards his osier isle." — Tlwmson. 

2. " Thither continual pilgrims crowded still." — Id. 

X. They form new compound epithets ; as, 

1. "In world-rejoicing state, it moves sublime." — Thomson. 

2. " The dewy-skirted clouds imbibe the sun." — Id. 

3. " By brooks and groves in hollow-whispering gales." — Id. 

4. " The violet of sky-woven vest." — Langhorne. 

5. "A league from Epidamnum had we sailed, 

Before the always-wind-obeying dee]) 

Gave any tragic instance of our harm." — Shakspeare. 

XI. They connect the comparative degree to the positive; as, 

1. " Near and more near the billows rise." — Merrick. 

2. " Wide and wider spreads the vale." — Dyer. 

3. " Wide and more wide, the o'erflowings of the mind 

Take every creature in, of every kind." — Pope. 

XII. They form many adjectives in y; as, A gleamy ray, — towery height, 
— steepy hill, — steely casque, — heapy harvests, — moony shield, — writhy snake, 
— stilly lake, — vasty deep, — paly circlet. 

XIII. They employ adjectives of an abbreviated form ; as, dread for 
dreadful, drear for dreary, ebon for ebony, hoar for hoary, lone for lonely, 
scant for scanty, slope for sloping, submiss for submissive, vermil for vermil- 
ion, yon for yonder. 

XIV. They employ several adjectives that are not used in prose; as, 
azure, blithe, boon, dank, darkling, darksome, doughty, dun, fell, rife, rapt, 
rueful, sear, sylvan, twain, wan. 

XV. They employ personal PRONOUNS, and introduce their nouns 
afterwards; as, 

1. " It curl'd not Tweed alone, that breeze" — W. Scott, 

2. " Is it the lightning's quivering glance, 

That on the thicket streams ; 
Or do they flash on spear and lance, 
The sun's retiring beams" — Id. 



310 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

XVI. They sometimes omit the relative,^of the nominative case as, 
" For is there aught in sleep can charm tiie wise V — Thomson, 

XVII. They omit the antecedent, or introduce it after the relative; as, 

1. " Who never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys, 

Who never toils or watches, never sleeps." — Armstrong, 

2. " Who dares think one thing and another tell, 

My soul detests him as the gates of hell." — Pope's Homer. 

XVIII. They remove relative pronouns and other connectives, into the 
body of their clauses ; as, 

1. " Parts the fine locks, her graceful head that deck." — Darwin. 

2. " Not half so dreadful rises to the sight 

Orion's dog, the year when autumn weighs." — Thomson, 

XIX. They make intransitive VERBS transitive ; as, 

1, " A wile he stands, * 

Gazing the inverted landscape, half afraid 

To meditate the blue profound below." — Thomson. 

2. " Still in harmonious intercourse, they liv'd 

The rural day, and talked the flowing heart." — Id. 

XX. They give to the imperative mood the first and the third person j as, 

1. " Turn we a moment fancy's rapid flight." — Thomson. 

2. " Be man's peculiar work his sole delight." — Beattie. 

3. " And what is reason 1 Be she thus defined : 

Reason is upright stature in the soul!" — Young. 

XXI. They employ can, could, and would as principal verbs transi- 
tive; as, 

1. " What for ourselves we can, is always ours." 

2. " Who does the best his circumstance allows, 

Does well, acts nobly: — angels could no more." — Young. 

3. " What would this man 1 Now upward will he soar, 

And, little less than angel, would be more." — Pope. 

XXII. They place the infinitive before the word on which it de- 
pends; as, 

" When first thy sire to send on earth 
Virtue, his darling child, designed." — Gray. 

XXIII. They place the auxiliary after its principal ; as, 
• " No longer heed the sunbeam bright 

That plays on Carron's breast he can." — Langhorne. 

XXIV. Before verbs they sometimes arbitrarily employ or omit prefixes ; 
as, begird, bedim, evanish, emove ; for gird, dim, vanish, move : — lure, wail } 
wilder, reave ; for allure, bewail, bewilder, bereave. 

XXV They abbreviate verbs : as, list for listen, ope for open. 

XXVI. They employ several verbs that are not used in prose ; as, appal) 
astound, brook, cower, doff, ken, wend, ween, trow. 

XXV] I. They sometimes imitate a Greek construction of the infini* 
tive; as, 

1. " Who would not sing for Lycidas^ he knew 

Himself to sing, and build the lofty rhyme." — Milton. 

2. " For not, to have been dipped in Lethe lake, 

Could save the son of Thetis from to die." — Spenser. 

XXVIII. They employ the PARTICIPLES more frequently than 
prose writers, and in a construction somewhat peculiar j as, 
1, " He came, and standing in the midst, explain'd 
The peace rejected, but the truce obtained" — Pope, 



—POETIC DICTION. 311 

thrall 

he before had sat 
Among hao prime in Bjjiendor, now deposed. 
Ejected, emptied, gaz'd, unpitied, shunn'-d, 
A spectacle of ruin or of scorn." — Milton. 

XXIX. They employ several ADVERBS that are not used in prose; 

as, oft, haply, inly. 

XXX. They give to adverbs a peculiar location ; as, 

1. " Peeping from forth their alleys green." — Collins. 

2. " Erect the standard there of ancient night." — Milton, 

3. " The silence often of pure innocence 

Persuades, when speaking fails." — Shakspeare. 

4. " Where universal love not smiles around." — Thomson. 

5. " Robs me of that which not enriches him." — Shakspeare. 

XXXI. They omit the introductory adverb there ; as, 

u Was nought around but images of rest." — Thomson. 

XXXII. They employ the CONJUNCTIONS, or— or, and nor— nor, 

as correspondents ; as, 

1. "Or by the lazy Scheldt or wandering Po." — Goldsmith. 

2. " Wealth heap'd on wealth, nor truth nor safety buys." — Johnson. 

3. " Who by repentance is not satisfied, 

Is nor of heaven nor earth." — Shakspeare. 

XXXIII. They often place PREPOSITIONS and their adjuncts, be- 
fore the words on which they depend ; as, 

" Against your fame with fondness hate combines; 
The rival batters, and the lover mines." — Johnson. 

XXXIV. They sometimes place the preposition after its object ; as, 

1. " When beauty, Eden's bowers within, 

First stretch'd-the arm to deeds of sin, 
When passion burn'd, and prudence slept, 
The pitying angels, bent and wept."— Hogg. 

2. " The Muses fair, these peaceful shades among, 

With skilful fingers sweep the trembling strings." — Lloyd, 

XXXV. They employ INTERJECTIONS more frequently than 
prose writers ; as, 

" O let me gaze ! — Of gazing there's no end. 
O let me think ! — Thought too is wilder'd here." — Young. 

XXXVI. They employ ANTIQUATED WORDS and modes of ex- 
pression ; as, 

1. " Withouten that would come an heavier bale." — Thomson. 

2. " He was to weet, a little roguish page, 

Save sleep and play, who minded nought at all." — Id. 

3. " Not one eftsoons in view was to be found." — Id. 

4. " To number up the thousands dwelling here, 

An useless were, and eke an endless task." — Id. 

5. "Of clerks good plenty here you mote espy." — Id. 

6. " But these Ipassen by, with nameless numbers moe." — Id, 

THE END. 



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